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GATHERING     CORKWOOD 


CORK: 

Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 


BY 
GILBERT  E.   STECHER 


Illustrated 


NEW  YORK 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 

25  PARK  PLACE 

1914 


COPYRIGHT,    1914,    BY 
D.    VAN    NO  STRAND    COMPANY 


PREFACE 

THIS  monograph  is  not  an  attempt  to  put 
before  the  reading  public  a  scientific  exposi- 
tion of  the  merits  and  qualities  of  the  Quercus  Suber 
or  Quercus  Liber  (Linneus),  and  carry  it  up  into  the 
heights  of  learning  where  none  but  the  learned  may 
go;  but  to  set  forth  in  as  concise  a  manner  as 
possible,  the  plain  story  of  the  corkwood  stopper 
so  well  known  to  all.  The  corkwood  as  seen  in  the 
stopper  and  in  many  other  articles  of  trade,  has  long 
been  of  service  to  man,  and  remained  unnoticed  in 
journals  of  science,  but  for  a  word  here  and  there 
—  and  in  trying  to  acquaint  myself  with  its  gener- 
alities, found  it  most  difficult  to  get  even  these. 
This  rather  impressed  me  as  being  singular,  a 
material  so  largely  used  and  so  little  to  its  credit, 
in  literature,  that  I  pressed  my  investigations  only 
to  find  that  the  farther  I  searched  the  less  I  found. 

The  few  facts  gleaned  were  of  interest,  and  it 
occurred  to  me  to  put  them  together  in  some 
readable  form,  for  future  reference.  But  as  I  re- 
flected upon  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  infor- 
mation, which  was  made  in  behalf  of  my  studies, 
I  promptly  decided  to  go  into  the  subject  deep 


333815 


iv  PREFACE 

enough  to  cover  all  the  facts  and  the  result  is  this 
monograph  —  Quercus  Suber — 

It  is  presented  with  the  hope  that  it  will  help 
others  who  seek  a  knowledge  of  corkwood  and  is 
only  intended  as  a  resume  of  a  very  interesting  sub- 
ject. I  have  endeavored  to  give  credit  to  those  to 
whom  it  is  due  and  offer  my  results  as  a  tribute  to 
a  material  that  stands  in  a  class  worthy  of  4Jie 
scientists'  as  well  as  the  commercialists'  esteem. 

G.  E.  STECHER. 
June  15,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

QUERCUS  SURER   (Cork) 3 

QUERCUS  LIBER  (Linnaeus) 5 

CORK 7 

ORIGIN 9 

Including  the  territory  of  growth  and  attempts  to  transplant 
the  seed. 

THE  TREE  AND  GROWTH 12 

DISEASES 16 

STRIPPING 17 

BOTANY  AND  CHEMISTRY 22 

Including  compression  diagram. 

USES  AND  APPLICATION 39 

SUBSTITUTES 53 

MANUFACTURE 55 

Raw  stock. 

Sorting. 

Stopper  making. 

Cork  Disc  making. 

Waste  utilization. 

EXTENT  OF  THE  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRY   ....     71 
APPENDIX  76 


CORK: 
Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 


X 


CORK: 

Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

QUERCUS  SURER  — 

"CORK" 

THE  material  of  which  this  monograph  treats 
has  become  of  double  interest  because  of  its 
shrouded  mystery,  which  has  never  been  pierced 
to  the  extent  of  giving  the  world  a  complete  and 
comprehensive  story.  The  mysticism  does  not 
encompass  its  utility  and  general  uses  nor  its 
native  land,  as  these  are  well  known,  but  is  more 
associated  with  its  character,  composition  and 
chemical  makeup. 

Its  uses  may  be  traced  far  back  into  the  misty 
past  that  is  dim  to  us,  but  from  the  faint  scroll  of 
history  looms  up  in  the  mind's  eye  as  an  epoch  that 
we  may  have  been  glad  to  know,  and  although  the 
references  are  few,  by  carefully  analyzing  them  we 
may  glean  somewhat  of  its  lineage. 


4        Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

The  arcana  attending  it  have  been  revealed  to 
a  few,  who  no  doubt,  through  curiosity,  have 
endeavored  to  penetrate  its  obscurity,  but  unfor- 
tunately have  not  written  extensively  upon  the 
subject,  instead  leaving  a  meager  memorandum  of 
their  findings.  The  years  of  its  use  have  given 
very  little  knowledge  of  it  to  us,  the  reason  perhaps 
being  the  lack  of  competition  and  therefore  no 
necessity  for  a  close  scrutiny  to  find  additional 
qualities  to  recommend  it  above  others.  And  an 
additional  mystery  is  that  it  has  been  in  use  for  so 
many  years  and  so  little  said  about  it.  Its  latent 
qualities  have  mystified  those  who  have  handled 
it  for  years,  and  from  them  we  can  learn  very  little; 
so  it  will  be  of  interest  to  peruse  practically  all 
that  has  been  written,  incorporated  in  this  treatise, 
with  the  addition  of  the  latest  investigations  upon 
the  subject.  To  present  this  in  a  form  which  will 
give  credit  to  the  small  but  authoritative  references 
and  place  them  in  their  proper  order,  together  with 
other  recent  data,  was  no  small  task,  and  in  pre- 
senting the  total  matter  in  concise  style  meant  the 
weeding  out  of  all  extraneous  language  or  super- 
fluous description. 

In  considering  this  material,  it  may  be  well  to 
start  with  a  few  precursory  remarks  as  to  the 
etymology  of  the  words  by  which  it  has  been 
designated  in  the  past  and  is  now  known,  as  by 
so  doing  it  will  convey  a  better  understanding  of 
the  material  to  follow. 


Cork  5 

QUERCUS  LIBER  (Linnaeus) 

The  above  name  is  the  true  one  of  the  material 
under  discussion  and  is  derived  from  the  Latin. 
Quercus;  Italian  or  esculent  oak  sacred  to  Jupiter. 
Liber;  binding  or  surrounding;  hence  surrounding 
of  the  oak  or  bark  of  the  oak,  sacred  to  Jupiter. 

"  QUERCUS  SUBER" 

This,  its  definite  name,  undoubtedly  conveyed 
some  particular  meaning  to  the  ancients,  but 
research  fails  to  reveal  any  definition  of  the  word 
"Suber."1  "The  word  is  so  far  a  puzzle  to 
philologists.  Forcellini  in  his  great  dictionary  of 
Latin  says  that  it  is  perhaps  connected  with  the 
Greek  word  (<rv<t>ap  —  suphar),  which  means  'an 
old  wrinkled  skin,  as,  for  instance,  the  cast-off 
skin  of  a  snake.'  If  this  derivation  be  sound,  the 
Romans,  in  using  the  word,  thought  at  the  outset 
primarily  of  the  rough  bark  of  the  tree  and  then 
of  the  tree  as  a  whole.  Forcellini  quotes  also  an 
opinion  of  Isidorus  Hispalensis  upon  the  longer 
form  of  'Suber,'  i.e.,  Suberies,  to  the  effect  that 
this  form  is  derived  from  'sus'  (swine)  and  'edo'(eat) 
because  swine  eat  the  acorns.  But  this  is  a  purely 
popular  etymology.  I  find  too  that  Scaliger  de- 
rived it  from  the  verb  'Subio'  'to  come  up  from 
below'  because  cork  will  not  stay  down  in  water. 
Vanicek,  in  his  Etymologische  Worterbuch,  classes 

1  Letter  from  Prof.  Nelson  G.  McCrea  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, June  12,  1910,  to  writer. 


6       Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

'Suber'  among  the  dunkel  words,  and  in  the  new 
and  most  elaborate  Historische  Grammatic  of  Stolz 
the  word  is  not  mentioned  at  all  in  the  treatment 
of  roots.  Even  Otto  Keller  in  his  work  on  Ety- 
mologies has  nothing  to  say  about  it." 


"CORK" 

This  name  is  as  much  of  a  mystery  as  the  word 
"Suber"  and  its  origin  can  only  be  guesswork. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  it  is  the  broadening 
of  the  first  syllable  of  the  word  "Quercus"  and 
has  no  bearing  upon  its  usage,  composition  or 
lineage.  Some  dictionaries  give  other  deriva- 
tions, such  as  the  mutilation  of  the  Spanish 
"Corcho"  or  the  French  "Calk,"  and  others  that 
it  is  taken  from  the  Latin  Cortex,1  meaning  the 
outer  shell  or  husk,  the  external  part,  but  they  do 
not  present  any  convincing  argument. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  "cork"  as  applied 
to-day  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  "Kalafa,"  to 
stop  the  seams  of  ships;  the  Latin  "Stipo,"  to 
suppress;  the  French,  " Calfeutrer,"  to  stop.  But 
these  do  not  bear  upon  the  origin  of  the  word 
"cork,"  as  in  all  probability  the  word  was  coined 
independent  of  these  sources,  but  as  we  apply  the 
word  to  a  definite  act,  that  of  "stopping,"  the 
definition  as  given  above  is  applicable,  although 
the  proper  name  would  be  "stopper,"  regardless 
of  what  material  it  is  made.  It  is  therefore  plain 
that  the  word  "cork"  is  a  Latin  phonetic  abbrevia- 
tion, for  it  appears  to  be  the  only  logical  root  for 
the  word. 

1  According  to  "Spanish  Dictionary"  of  Lopes  et  Bensley; 
Cortex:  "La  Parte  exterior  del  Arbol."  Arbol  in  botany 
meaning  "a  tree." 


8       Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

The  cork  tree  is  called  "Alcornoque"  in  Gastilian 
language;  Surn  in  Castalan;  Sobreiro,  Gallician; 
Suvi  y  Sioure  in  provincialism;  Chene  Liege  in 
French;  Keonge  fernam  or  only  fernam,  in  Arge- 
line;  Kork-baum  or  korkeiche  in  German;  and,  as 
before  stated,  cork  in  English.1 

1  Consul  Schenck's  Report. 


ORIGIN 

The  study  of  its  origin  leads  us  to  that  romantic 
part  of  the  world  bordering  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  from  which  we  have  already  received  so  much 
in  all  branches.  The  cork-producing  country 
practically  covering  the  whole  of  Portugal  sweep- 
ing toward  the  East  through  the  southern  dis- 
tricts known  as  Andalusia  and  Estremadura,  thence 
northeast,  embracing  thousands  of  acres  of  for- 
ests in  Catalonia.  Spain  and  Portugal  dividing 
honors  among  the  nations  in  the  annual  yield  of 
raw  material,  with  perhaps  the  advantage  lean- 
ing slightly  to  the  latter.1  This  being  partly  due 
to  increased  area,  no  doubt,  as  the  geographical 
situation  is  the  same  but  with  the  irrigation  fea- 
ture slightly  in  favor  of  Spain,  as  through  the  cork- 
wood country  flows  the  Guadalquivir  River  in 
addition  to  the  three  which  also  pass  through 
Portugal,  consisting  of  the  Douro,  Tagus  and 
Guadiana  in  the  west,  and  the  Ebro  in  the  Gerona 
district. 

Tunis  and  Algeria2  rank  next  in  importance  with 
Southern  France,  including  Corsica  following  closely. 
Italy  (Tuscany)  too  with  the  help  of  Sardinia  and 
Sicily  continuing  to  be  quite  a  factor  in  meeting 

1  Armstrong  Cork  Co.'s  pamphlet. 

2  There  are  large  forests  of  cork  on  the  French  Colony  of 
Algeria,   particularly  on  an  estate    granted  by  the   Emperor 
Napoleon  III  to  M.  le  due  de  Montebello.  —  H.  G.  GLASSPOOLE. 


10     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

the  demand  for  the  crude  material,  while  across  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar  the  sun-scorched  forests  of 
Morocco  at  El-araish  are  as  yet  undeveloped, 
although  rapidly  being  pressed  into  service. 

The  geographical  formation  of  Portugal  is  ex- 
tremely favorable  for  the  rearing  of  cork  trees, 
every  evidence  of  this  characteristic  being  well 
marked  by  the  densely  thick  groups  of  cork  trees 
to  be  seen  in  certain  regions,  especially  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Tagus  and  the  Sierra  de  Portalegre  provinces 
of  Alemtejo  and  Algarve,  which  are  the  chief 
bearing  centers  of  this  country,1  the  area  devoted 
to  their  cultivation  being  approximately  366,000 
hectares. 

In  Spain  it  is  found  in  the  Provinces  of  Gerona, 
Caceres,  Andalusia,  Huelvas,  Seville,  Cadiz,  Ciudad 
Real,  Malaga,  Cordoba  and  Toledo  in  the  order 
named. 

According  to  a  calculation  made  by  the  adminis- 
tration of  forests  the  extent  of  cork  forests  in  Spain 
is  about  255,000  hectares,2  viz.  80,000  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Gerona,  54,000  in  Huelvas,  32,500  in 
Caceres,  28,000  in  Seville,  20,000  in  Cadiz,  11,500 
in  Ciudad  Real  and  9500  in  Cordoba.  The 
remainder  is  distributed  between  ten  other 
provinces.3 

In  the  Province  of  Gerona  is  included  a  large 
territory  stretching  northward  towards  the  Pyre- 
nees to  the  Valley  of  the  Muge  and  Ter.  In  France, 

1  Chambers  Journal.  *  Consul  Schenck's  Report. 

8  One  hectare  =  2.471  acres. 


Origin  11 

according  to  Consul  Goldschmidt  of  Nantes,  the 
cork-producing  territory  is  divided  as  follows: 
Var,  280  acres;  Lot-et-Garonne,  27  acres;  Landes, 
32  acres;  Corsica,  40  acres;  making  about  379 
acres  in  all. 

This  resume*  of  the  cork-producing  countries  of 
Europe  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the 
forests,  and  will  also  show  the  climate  sort  by  the 
tree;  for  it  is  proven  that  it  flourishes  best  in  an 
altitude  of  1600  to  3000  feet,  in  an  average  mean 
temperature  of  55°  Farenheit;  and  at  points  be- 
yond 45°  north  latitude  its  successful  propagation  is 
doubtful. 

The  Mediterranean  Basin  is  particularly  suitable 
for  the  rearing  of  corkwood,  and  although  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  transplant  the  seed, 
the  results  have  proven  fatal. 

Notable  among  these  attempts  being  the  American 
ambition  to  introduce  the  tree  in  the  United  States.  > 
Portuguese  acorns  were  brought  to  Wayne  County,  j 
Mississippi,  and  planted  in  1859;    the  result,  as  far 
as  the  growth  was   concerned,   was   splendid;    but 
after  a  wait  of  eleven  years,  the  final  crop  was  not  a 
commercial  success.     Another  attempt  was  made  in 
1872,  in  southern  California,  but  with   no   better 
outcome  than  the  first,  in  which  some  of  the  trees  : 
attained  to  a  height  of  thirteen  feet  (3.965  meters) 
and  the  stem,  to  a  diameter  of  eleven  inches  (2.794 
decimeters),  including  the  cork,  which    attained    a 
thickness   of   one   inch    (2.540   centimeters).     This 
evidently  rapid  growth  would  infer  that  the  Ameri- 


12      Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

can  zone  was  all  that  could  be  desired  for  the 
favorable  rearing  of  cork  trees;  but  strange  to  say 
this  was  not  the  case.  Although  the  growth  of  the 
tree  had  been  exceptionally  strong,  the  quality  of 
its  salient  product  turned  out  to  be  of  an  inferior 
character.  The  cork  generally  improves  with  the 
age  of  the  tree;  in  this  instance,  however,  even 
after  years  of  maturity  the  cork  harvest  did  not 
improve  to  any  great  extent,  and  indeed  is  still 
of  a  second-rate  quality.1  And  Consul  S.  C.  Reat, 
writing  from  Tamsui,  recently  reports  the  efforts 
of  the  Japanese  Government  to  plant  cork  trees 
in  Formosa  and  the  Ogasawara  Isles,  in  the  en- 
deavor to  supply  small  corks  to  the  Japanese 
merchants,  the  result  of  which,  is  yet  to  be  learned. 

THE  TREE  AND  GROWTH 

Many  botanists  consider  the  cork  oak  of  Europe 
as  belonging  to  two  species,  one  chiefly  charac- 
terized by  annual  fructification  and  the  persistence 
of  the  leaves  for  two  or  three  years  (Quercus 
Suber,  Linnaeus);  the  other  by  biennial  fructifica- 
tion and  annual  persistence  of  the  leaves  (Quercus 
Occidentalis,  Gay).2 

In  the  French  departments  of  the  Landes  and 
Gironde  the  Quercus  Occidentalis  forms  extensive 
woods,  as  also  in  Spain,  Algeria  and  in  some  parts 
of  Italy,  while  the  Quercus  Suber  is  a  native  of  the 
Atlantic  side  of  France  and  Portugal,  where  this 

1  Chambers  Journal.          2  Garden  and  Forest,  Vol.  VIII,  52. 


Origin  13 

tree  grows  to  the  greatest  perfection,  and  to  which 
countries  we  are  indebted  for  the  major  part  of 
our  supply.  The  cork  tree  bears  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  broad-leaved  kind  of  (Quercus  Ilex, 
Holm)  or  evergreen  oak,  of  which  species  some 
authors  consider  it  only  a  variety;  but  when  full 
grown  it  forms  a  much  handsomer  tree. 

"In  the  localities  to  the  north  the  cork  is  better 
than  those  exposed  to  the  south.  It  grows  and 
develops  in  ground  of  very  little  depth,  and  some- 
times in  ground,  in  appearance  very  stony.  It  is 
seldom  found  in  calcareous  soil,  preferring  always 
a  soil  of  feldspar,  and  like  the  chestnut  flourishes 
best  in  a  sandy  one."  1 

The  cork-oak  attains  a  height  of  from  six  to 
eighteen  meters,  at  times  reaching  fifty  meters 2 
and  measures  as  much  as  1.22  meters  in  diameter.3 
Its  branches  are  covered  with  small  evergreen  leaves, 
which  are  rather  spongy  and  velvety  to  the  touch, 
have  a  glossy  appearance  and  a  saw-tooth  edge,  meas- 
uring about  three  to  five  centimeters4  long  and  one 
and  one-half  to  two  wide.  The  roots  are  strong  and 
spread  considerably,  and  frequently  are  to  be  seen 

1  Consul  Schenck's  Report.  2  Meter  =  3.28  feet. 

3  In  a  cork-wood  of  Montenegro  (municipal  district  of  Quart, 
Province  of  Gerona)   the  property  of  D.  Romulo  Bosch,  and 
near  the  place  called  La  Mina,  we  measured  in  August,  1877,  a 
tree  that  was  4.95  meters  in  circumference,  breast  high,  and 
the  trunk  of  the   tree  five  meters   high,   calculating  its   age 
between  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  two  hundred  years  old. 
Consul  Schenck's  Report,  1890. 

4  Centimeter  =  .3937  inch. 


14     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  flowers  or 
blossoms  make  their  appearance  in  May;  the 
fruit  ripens  in  the  fall  or  winter,  from  September 
to  January,  and  falling  from  the  tree  as  soon  as 
ripe.  Three  qualities  of  acorns  are  to  be  observed 
according  to  their  time  of  ripening  and  are  called, 
"brevas  primerizas  de  San  Miguel,"  which  ripen 
in  September;  the  second  or  middling  "Martinen- 
cas,"  which  ripen  in  October  and  November;  and 
finally  the  "tardias  0  palo-Meras,"  which  ripen  in 
December  and  January.  These  acorns  form  one 
of  the  forest's  chief  sources  of  revenue,  since  fed 
to  swine,  they  give  a  peculiarly  piquant  flavor  to 
the  meat,  Spanish  mountain  hams  being  noted  for 
their  excellence.1 

In  the  following  paragraphs  I  will  quote  prin- 
cipally from  Consul  Schenck's  Report,  1890,  relat- 
ing to  the  growing  and  procuring  of  the  bark  for 
shipment,  with  interpolated  sentences  and  slight 
changes,  made  necessary  by  other  data  at  hand. 
The  most  common  practice  is  to  cultivate  this  plant 
by  sowing,  which  is  frequently  done,  above  all,  in 
ground  somewhat  manured,  making  alternate  furrows 
with  vines.  Up  to  their  twentieth  or  twenty-fifth 
year  the  ground  is  cultivated  as  if  it  were  a  vine- 
yard, rooting  up  at  that  age  the  vines  on  account 
of  producing  less  fruit,  and  also  on  account  of  the 
cork  trees  being  pretty  well  grown  up  and  no  longer 
requiring  the  shelter  of  the  vines.  At  the  end  of 
even  one  year  it  is  difficult  to  transplant  the  cork 
1  Consul  Schenck's  Report,  1890.  Authority  M.  Fee. 


Origin  15 

tree  on  account  of  the  length  of  the  roots,  prin- 
cipally the  central  one,  and  if  the  trees  are  put  out 
with  the  intention  of  transplanting  they  are  gener- 
ally sewn  in  a  false  ground  bottom  made  artificially 
at  a  certain  depth  with  layers  of  stones  or  bricks. 
French  silviculturists  recommend  about  110  to  120 
trees  to  the  hectare  (2.471  acres). 

The  cork  tree  gives  but  little  shade,  which  con- 
tributes greatly  in  causing  the  soil  to  become  dry. 
To  avoid  all  these  inconveniences,  which  are  highly 
unfavorable  to  the  good  production  of  cork,  it  is 
requisite  that  young  plants  grow  up  with  sufficient 
foliage,  so  that  the  branches  touch  each  other,  and 
even  overreach,  till  they  are  about  twenty-five 
years  old.  It  may  be  convenient,  if  there  is  not 
sufficient  foliage  from  the  cork  trees  themselves, 
to  introduce  secondary  species,  such  as  the  elm 
tree,  ash  and  pine,  known  as  (pi  meli),  these  being 
depended  upon  to  supply  the  requisite  coolness 
and  manure  to  the  ground.  If  the  soil  is  poor,  the 
cork  is  thin  but  of  fine  quality  and  very  appropri- 
ate to  make  the  best  stoppers.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  rich,  the  cork  is  thick  but  spongy. 
Consequently  it  is  requisite  to  treat  the  cork  tree 
in  such  a  manner  that  whilst  the  cork  grows  thick 
it  will  at  the  same  time  be  fine  in  texture.  This 
is  of  course  an  agricultural  problem  and  may  differ 
from  year  to  year  in  the  necessary  details. 


DISEASES 

The  cork  tree  has  in  no  wise  escaped  from  dis- 
ease and  infections;  on  the  contrary  it  has  its  full 
allotted  share  which  worries  the  growers  more  than 
the  acquiring  of  a  perfect  texture,  and  unless  great 
care  is  taken  will  greatly  reduce  the  value  of  a 
crop.  The  larva  of  the  Coroebus  undatus  (corch) 
attacks  the  interior  of  the  cork,  penetrating  fre- 
quently into  the  tree  iself,  which  causes  an  under- 
valuation in  the  quality  of  the  cork,  and,  moreover, 
these  perforations  unite  so  closely  and  in  such  a 
manner  even  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  that  in 
peeling  off  the  cork,  part  of  the  skin  of  the  trunk 
itself  comes  off,  causing  much  damage  to  the 
tree. 

The  larva  of  the  Cerambyx  cerdo,  as  well  as  the 
ant,  Formica  rufa  L.  hormigas,  destroys  the  fine 
cork  with  their  numerous  borings  and  galleries. 
Jaspered  (Jasperado)  is  the  name  by  which  is 
known  one  of  the  defects  of  the  cork  which  reduces 
it  greatly  in  value  and  as  far  as  can  be  learned 
comes  from  the  tree  itself.  The  porosity  of  cork 
is  greatly  increased  by  the  presence  of  cork-meal, 
resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  the  Scleren- 
chyma,  or  stone  cells,  which  penetrate  the  cork 
fiber  and  falling  to  a  powder  facilitate  the  entrance 
of  infection.1 

1  Scientific  American,  1906. 


STRIPPING 

xThe  corkwood  or  cork  of  commerce  is  the 
external  part  or  "periderm"  of  the  cork-oak;  and 
when  it  has  attained  a  diameter  of  approximately 
12.7  centimeters  or  the  tree  measures  forty  centi- 
meters in  circumference  according  to  the  Spanish 
governmental  regulations,  which  the  tree  does 
usually  by  the  time  it  is  twenty  years  old,  the  bark 
may  be  removed.  The  stripping  generally  takes 
place  during  July  and  August,  and  it  is  a  process 
which  demands  skill  and  care,  if  injury  to  the  bark 
is  to  be  avoided,  fin  Algeria  the  French  strippers 
sometimes  use  crescent-shaped  saws,  but  under 
the  usual  Spanish  method  a  hatchet,  with  a  long 
handle,  is  the  only  implement  employed.  The 
bark  is  cut  clear  through,  around  the  base  of  the 
tree,  and  a  similar  incision  is  made  around  the 
trunk,  just  below  the  spring  of  the  main  branches; 
the  two  incisions  are  then  connected  by  one  or  two 
longitudinal  cuts,  following,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
deepest  of  the  natural  cracks  in  the  bark.  Insert- 
ing the  wedge-shaped  handle,  the  tree's  covering  , 
is  then  pried  off.  The  larger  branches  are  stripped 
in  the  [same  manner,  yielding,  generally,  a  finer 
grade  of  cork  than  that  of  the  trunk.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  bark  ranges  from  1.27  centimeters  to 
6.85  centimeters,  while  the  yield  also  varies  greatly 

1  Armstrong  Cork  Co.'s  pamphlet. 


18      Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

from  twenty  to  75  kilograms  1  per  tree,  depending 
upon  its  size  and  age.  After  the  first  stripping 
the  tree  is  left  in  the  juvenescent  state  to  regener- 
ate, and  great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  stripping 
not  to  injure  the  inner  skin  or  epidermis  at  any  stage 
of  the  process,  for  the  life  of  the  tree  depends  upon 
its  proper  preservation,  for  if  injured  at  any  point, 
growth  there  ceases  and  the  spot  remains  forever 
afterward  scarred  and  uncovered.  It  is  also  neces- 
sary to  avoid  stripping  during  the  prevalence  of 
a  sirocco,  which  would  dry  the  inner  skin  too  rapidly 
and  therefore  exclude  all  further  formation  of  cork. 

The  Capgrand-Mothe  system,  which,  as  known, 
consists  of  dressing  the  trunk  with  the  same  cork 
just  removed,  and  leaving  it  so  dressed  for  a  couple 
of  months,  has  not  met  with  approval,  as  being 
impracticable  on  a  large  scale.  After  the  stripping, 
the  phellogen,  the  seat  of  the  growing  processes, 
undertakes  at  once  the  formation  of  a  new  covering 
of  finer  texture,  and  each  year  this,  the  real  skin, 
with  its  life-giving  sap,  forms  two  layers  of  cells, 
one  within,  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  trunk, 
the  other  without,  adding  thickness  to  the  sheath- 
ing of  bark.  After  eight  or  ten  years  this  sheath- 
ing is  removed,  and  while  more  valuable  than  the 
first  stripping,  it  is  not  as  fine  in  quality  as  that 
of  the  third  and  subsequent  stoppings,  which  follow 
at  regular  intervals  of  about  nine  years.  At  the 
age  of  about  forty  years  the  oak  begins  to  yield 
its  best  bark,  continuing  productive  as  a  rule  for 

1  Kilogram  =  2.205  pounds. 


Stripping  19 


almost  a  century.1  The  cork  of  the  first  barking  I 
is  called  Corcho-Bornio,  Borniza  or  virgin,  and  is 
so  coarse,  rough,  and  dense  in  texture  that  it  is  of 
little  commercial  value.  The  second  barking  is 
called  "pelas,"  or  secondary  cork,  and  this  and 
subsequent  barkings  constitute  the  cork  of  com- 
merce. As  the  bark  is  removed  it  is  gathered  up 
in  piles  (rusque)  and  left  for  a  few  days  to  dry. 
Having  been  weighed,  it  is  next  carried  either  in 
wagons  or  on  the  backs  of  burros  to  the  boiling 
station,  where  it  is  stacked  and  allowed  to  season 
for  a  few  weeks.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  boiling 
process.  The  outside  of  the  bark  in  its  natural 
state  is,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  rough  and  woody, 
owing  to  exposure  to  the  weather.  After  boiling 
this  useless  outer  coating  is  readily  scraped  off, 
thereby  reducing  the  weight  of  the  material  almost 
twenty  per  cent.  The  boiling  process  also  serves 
to  remove  the  tannic  acid,  increases  the  volume 
and  elasticity  of  the  bark,  renders  it  soft  and 
pliable  and  flattens  it  out  for  convenient  packing. 
After  being  roughly  sorted  as  to  quality  and  thick- 
ness, the  bark  is  then  ready  for  its  first  long  jour- 
ney, and  as  the  forests  are  generally  located  in 
hilly  or  even  mountainous  country,  the  faithful 
burro  must  again  be  called  into  service.  Truly  the 

1  Mr.  Lamey,  the  author  of  a  study  upon  cork  in  Algeria, 
published  some  interesting  tables  in  this  work  regarding  the 
annual  increase  and  the  mean  thickness  of  cork.  According 
to  him  cork-bark  should  not  be  removed  before  it  has  attained 
a  thickness  of  2.032  cm.,  and  the  formation  of  new  cork  has 
been  well  explained  by  Mr.  Mathieu  in  his  "Forestry  Flora." 


20     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

Spaniards'  best  friend,  though  the  worst  treated 
of  all,  these  patient  little  animals  present  a  most 
grotesque  appearance  when  loaded  from  head  to 
hind  quarters  with  a  huge  mass  of  the  light  bark. 
Down  from  the  hills  they  go  in  trains  of  thirty, 
forty  or  even  a  hundred,  threading  the  rocky 
bridle  paths  in  single  file  and  wending  their  way 
through  the  narrow  streets  of  quaint  villages  where 
traces  of  Moorish  occupancy  may  still  be  seen,  to 
the  nearest  railway  station.  The  corkwood  is 
there  freighted  to  the  various  sea-port  warehouses 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,*Seville,  Spain  being  perhaps 
the  largest  depository  and  user  of  raw  material.1 
This  historic  city,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Guadalquivir,  presents  a  very  animated  sight  in 
the  summer  months,  and  plays  a  very  important 
part  in  the  cork  industry,  for  besides  the  numerous 
warehouses  for  storing  and  shipping  there  are 
factories  for  the  manipulation  of  cork  and  its  con- 
version into  the  many  useful  forms  in  which  it  has 
pro\  3n  of  value.  Before  shipping,  the  bales  are 
opened,  the  edges  of  the  bark  trimmed  and  the 
bark  then  sorted  int6  the  various  grades  of  quality 
and  thickness  again.  The  importance  of  this  last 
mentioned  operation  cannot  be  overemphasized,  as 
the  whole  problem  of  the  successful  and  economical 
manufacture  of  corks  center  about  it.  After  sort- 
ing it  is  ready  to  be  rebaled  for  shipment,  this 
generally  being  done  by  placing  the  large,  flat 
pieces  called  planks  or  tables,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
1  Armstrong  Cork  Co.'s  pamphlet. 


Stripping  21 


bales,  and  above  them  the  small  pieces  which  are 
covered  in  turn  with  larger  sections;  then  the  whole 
mass  being  subjected  to  pressure  to  render  it  com- 
pact, afterward  being  bound  up  securely  with  steel 
hoops  or  wires.  Each  bale  carefully  marked  indi- 
cating the  grade  or  quality,  loaded  directly  into 
ocean-going  steamers  and  shipped  to  the  ports  of 
the  world. 

From  this  meager  description  we  at  least  can 
learn  what  "corkwood"  is,  the  limited  sphere  of 
its  growth,  the  constant  care  necessary  to  insure 
a  successful  harvest  or  gathering,  the  peculiarities 
of  the  tree,  its  longevity  and  the  general  modeiof 
preparing  the  bark  for  shipment;  the  narration 
in  no  wise  doing  justice  to  this  most  interesting 
material,  in  its  natural  state,  for  its  growing  is  a 
fascinating  tale  in  itself;  but  for  the  purpose  of 
this  writing  the  foregoing  has  been  deemed  suffi- 
cient to  convey  an  understanding  of  it. 

As  we  have  now  seen  how  this  wonderful  material 
grows,  its  haunts  and  dwellings,  we  will  look  ?l  it 
more  closely  and  see  what  it  really  is,  how  this 
particular  formation  comes  about  and  its  peculi- 
arities. 


BOTANY  AND  CHEMISTRY 

IN  considering  "cork"  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining its  characteristics,  texture  and  composi- 
tion we  will,  instead  of  analyzing  the  material 
after  it  has  reached  the  market,  look  at  it  from  the 
standpoint  of  botany  and  learn  of  its  formation 
upon  the  tree,  from  which  it  is  procured.  It 
appears  that  the  word  "cork"1  in  botany  signifies 
a  growth  peculiar  to  all  plants  and  pertaining  to 
none  in  particular,  being  described  as  "a  peculiar 
tissue  in  the  higher  plants  forming  the  division  of 
the  bark  (which  name  is  sometimes  restricted  to 
the  dead  tissues  lying  outside  the  cork);  consisting 
of  closely  packed  air-cells  nearly  impervious  to  air 
and  water  and  protects  the  underlying  tissues."  2 
Again,  "It  is  produced  by  the  activity  and  division 
of  certain  merismatic  cells  known  as  phellogen  or 
cork  cambium  which  are  situated  immediately 
within  the  epidermal  covering  of  the  young  growth. 
As  the  cork  cells  grow  older,  their  protoplasmic  con- 
tents disappear  and  are  replaced  by  air.  In  order 
that  this  formation  may  be  clearly  understood,  I 
will  quote  from  a  paragraph  entitled  "Cork  and 
Epidermal  Formations  Produced  by  It"  contained 
in  "A  Text  Book  on  Botany,"  by  Sacks. 

1  See  "Etymology  of  Word"  in  preceding  chapter. 

2  "New  English  Dictionary,"  Murray. 


Botany  and  Chemistry  23 

"When  succulent  organs  of  the  higher  plants, 
no  longer  in  the  bud  condition,  are  injured,  the 
wound  generally  becomes  closed  up  by  cork  tissue, 
i.e.,  new  cells  arise  near  the  wounded  surface  by 
repeated  division  of  those  which  are  yet  sound, 
and  these  forming  a  firm  skin  separate  the  inner 
tissue  from  the  outer  injured  layers  of  cells.  The 
walls  of  this  tissue  offer  the  strongest  resistance 
to  the  most  various  agencies,  similar  to  the  cutic- 
ular  layers  of  the  epidermis  in  their  physical 
behavior,  flexible  and  elastic,  permeable  only  with 
difficulty  by  air  and  water,  they  for  the  most  part 
soon  lose  their  contents  and  become  filled  with  air. 
They  are  arranged  in  rows  lying  at  right  angles 
to  the  surface  or  parallelopipedal  form,  and  form 
a  close  tissue  without  intercellular  spaces.  These 
are  the  general  distinguishing  features  of  cork 
tissue.  It  is  formed  not  only  on  wounded  surfaces, 
but  arises  in  much  greater  mass  where  succulent 
organs  require  an  effectual  protection  (e.g.,  potato 
tubers)  or  where  the  epidermis  is  unable  to  keep 
up  with  the  increase  of  circumference  where  growth 
in  thickness  continues  for  a  long  period.  In  these 
cases  the  cork  tissue  is  formed  even  before  the 
destruction  of  the  epidermis,  and  when  this  splits 
under  the  action  of  the  weather  and  falls  off,  the 
new  envelope  formed  by  the  cork  is  already  pres- 
ent. The  cork  tissue  is  the  result  of  repeated 
bipartitions  of  the  cells  by  partition  walls,  rarely 
in  the  epidermis  cells  themselves,  more  often  in 
the  subjacent  tissue.  The  partition  walls  lie  paral- 


24     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

lei  to  the  surface  of  the  organ,  divisions  also  taking 
place  in  a  vertical  direction,  by  which  the  number 
of  the  rows  of  cells  is  increased.  From  the  two 
newly  formed  thin-walled  cells  of  each  radial  row 
one  remains  thin  walled  and  rich  in  protoplasm, 
and  in  a  condition  capable  of  division;  the  other 
becomes  transformed  into  a  permanent  cork  cell. 
Thus  arises,  usually  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
organ,  a  layer  of  cells  capable  of  division,  which 
continues  to  form  new  cork  cells,  the  cork  cambium 
or  layer  of  phellogen.  In  general  this  is  the  inner- 
most layer  of  the  whole  cork  tissue,  so  that  the 
production  of  cork  advances  outwardly  and  new 
layers  of  cork  are  constantly  formed  out  of  the 
phellogen  on  the  inner  surface  of  those  already  in 
existence.  When  in  this  manner  a  continuous 
layer  of  cork  arises,  steadily  increasing  from  the 
inside,  it  is  termed  "periderm."  As  the  epidermis 
is  at  first  replaced  by  the  periderm,  so  in  turn 
is  this  replaced  by  cork  (the  dead  tissue).  The 
development  and  configuration  of  the  cork  cells  may 
change  periodically  during  the  formation  of  peri- 
derm. Alternate  layers  of  narrow,  thick-walled 
and  broad,  thin-walled  cork  cells  are  formed;  the 
periderm  then  appearing  stratified,  like  wood,  show- 
ing annual  rings  as  in  the  periderm  of  the  Quercus 
Suber,  Betula  Alba,  etc." 

Mr.  Sacks,  as  a  botanist,  has  clearly  set  forth  the 
explanation  of  the  formation  of  the  periderm  of 
the  Quercus  Suber  in  the  foregoing,  and  although 
the  story  of  the  life  producing  this  formation  would 


Botany  and  Chemistry  25 

be  an  acceptable  sequel  to  this  explanation,  it 
would  in  no  wise  assist  in  the  ultimate  findings, 
and  therefore  it  is  dispensed  with.  Mr.  William 
Anderson,  in  a  paper  read  at  the  Royal  Institution 
of  Great  Britain  in  1886,  has  the  following  to 
say  on  cork  formation,  which  is  very  interesting: 
"In  considering  the  properties  of  most  substances, 
our  search  for  the  cause  of  their  properties  is 
baffled  by  our  imperfect  powers  and  the  feeble 
instruments  we  possess  for  investigating  molec- 
ular structure.  With  cork,  happily,  this  is  not 
the  case;  an  examination  of  its  structure  is  easy 
and  perfectly  explains  the  cause  of  its  pecul- 
iar and  valuable  properties.  All  plants  are  built 
up  of  minute  cells  of  various  forms  and  dimensions. 
Their  walls  or  sides  are  composed  chiefly  of  a  sub- 
stance called  cellulose,  frequently  associated  with 
lignine,  or  woody  matter,  and  with  cork,  which 
last  is  a  nitrogenous  substance  found  in  many  por- 
tions of  plants,  but  is  especially  developed  in  the 
outer  cork  of  exogenous  trees,  that  is,  belonging 
to  an  order,  the  stems  of  which  grow  by  the  addi- 
tion of  layers  of  fresh  cellulose  tissue  outside  the 
woody  part  and  inside  the  bark.  Between  the  bark 
and  the  wood  is  interposed  a  thin  fibrous  layer, 
which  in  some  trees  is  very  much  developed.  The 
corky  part  of  the  bark  which  is  outside  is  composed 
of  closed  cells,  exclusively,  so  built  together  that 
no  connection  of  a  tubular  nature  runs  up  and 
down  thfe  tree,  although  horizontal  passages  ra- 
diating toward  the  woody  parts  of  the  tree  are 


26     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

numerous.  In  the  woody  part  of  the  tree,  on  the 
contrary,  and  in  the  inner  bark,  vertical  passages 
or  tubes  exist,  while  a  connection  is  kept  up  with 
the  pith  of  the  tree  by  means  of  medullary  rays. 
In  one  species  of  tree,  known  as  the  cork-oak,  this 
is  strongly  developed."  It  appears  that  Mr.  An- 
derson enlivened  his  lecture  by  microscopic  projec- 
tions, for  he  goes  on  to  say:  "First  I  project  on 
the  screen  a  microscopic  section  of  the  wood  of  the 
cork  tree.  It  is  taken  in  a  horizontal  plane,  and  I 
ask  you  to  notice  the  diversity  of  the  structure  and 
especially  the  presence  of  large  tubes  or  pipes.  I 
next  exhibit  a  section  taken  in  the  same  plane  of 
the  corky  portion  of  the  bark.  You  see  the  whole 
substance  is  made  up  of  minute  many-sided  cells 
about  7iu  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  about  twice 
as  long,  the  long  way  being  disposed  radically  to 
the  trunk.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  extremely 
thin  and  yet  they  are  wonderfully  impervious  to 
liquids.  Looked  at  by  reflected  light,  bands  of 
silvery  light  alternate  with  bands  of  comparative 
darkness,  showing  that  the  cells  are  built  on  end  to 
end  in  regular  order.  The  vertical  section  next  ex- 
hibited shows  a  cross  section  of  the  cells  like  a 
minute  honeycomb.  In  some  specimens  large  crys- 
tals are  found.  These  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  the  detached  elementary  spindle-shaped  cells, 
of  which  woody  fiber  is  made  up,  were  it  not  for 
the  powerful  means  of  analysis  we  have  in  polar- 
ized light.  I  need  hardly  explain  that  light  passed 
through  a  Nicol's  prism  becomes  polarized,  that  is  to 


Botany  and  Chemistry  27 

say,  the  vibrations  of  the  luminiferous  ether  are  all 
reduced  to  vibrations  in  one  plane  and  consequently 
if  a  second  prism  be  interposed  and  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  first,  the  light  will  be  unable  to  get 
through;  but  if  we  introduce  between  the  crossed 
Nicol  a  substance  capable  of  turning  the  plane  of 
vibration  again,  then  a  certain  light  will  pass.  I 
have  now  projected  on  the  screen  the  feeble  light 
emerging  from  the  crossed  Nicol.  I  introduce  the 
microscopic  preparation  of  cork  cells  between  them, 
and  you  see  the  crystals  glowing  with  many  colored 
lights  on  a  dark  ground.  Minute  though  these  cells 
are,  they  are  very  numerous  and  hard,  and  it  is 
partly  to  them  that  is  due  the  extraordinary  rapid- 
ity with  which  cork  blunts  the  cutting  instruments 
used  in  shaping  it."  In  his  research  or  experimen- 
tations Mr.  Anderson  was  most  deeply  impressed 
with  the  elasticity  of  cork,  and  has  the  following 
to  say  upon  his  findings:  "It  would  seem  difficult 
to  discover  any  new  properties  in  a  substance  so 
familiar  as  cork,  and  yet  it  possesses  qualities  which 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  solid  or  liquid  bodies, 
namely,  its  power  of  altering  its  volume  in  a  very 
marked  degree  in  consequence  of  change  of  pres- 
sure. All  liquids  and  solids  are  capable  of  cubical 
compression  or  extension,  but  to  a  very  small  ex- 
tent; thus  water  is  reduced  in  volume  by  only  .00005 
part  by  the  pressure  of  one  atmosphere.  Liquid 
carbonic  acid  yields  to  pressure  much  more  than 
any  other  fluid,  but  still  the  rate  is  very  small. 
Solid  substances,  with  the  exception  of  cork,  offer 


28     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

equally  obstinate  resistance  to  change  of  bulk; 
even  India  rubber,  which  most  people  would  sup- 
pose capable  of  very  considerable  change  of  volume, 
we  find  it  really  very  rigid.  Metals,  when  sub- 
jected to  pressure  which  exceed  their  elastic  limits 
so  that  they  are  permanently  deformed,  as  in  forg- 
ing or  wire  drawing,  remain  practically  unchanged 
in  volume  per  unit  of  weight.  Not  so  with  cork, 
its  elasticity  has  not  only  a  very  considerable  range, 
but  it  is  very  persistent.  Thus  in  the  better  kind 
of  corks  used  in  bottling  champagne  and  other 
effervescing  wines,  you  are  familiar  with  the  extent 
to  which  the  corks  expand  the  instant  they  escape 
from  the  bottles.  I  have  measured  this  expansion 
and  find  it  to  amount  to  an  increase  of  volume  of 
seventy-five  per  cent;  even  after  the  corks  have 
been  kept  in  a  state  of  compression  in  the  bottles 
for  ten  years.1  When  cork  is  subjected  to  pressure, 
either  in  one  direction  or  frpm  every  direction,  a 
certain  amount  of  permanent  deformation  or  per- 
manent set  takes  place.  This  property  is  common 
to  all  solid  elastic  substances  when  strained  beyond 
their  elastic  limits,  but  with  cork  the  limits  are 
comparatively  low."  To  take  advantage  of  the  pe- 
culiar properties  of  cork  in  mechanical  applications 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  accurately  the  law  of  its 
resistance  to  compression,  and  for  this  purpose  Mr. 
Anderson  instituted  a  series  of  experiments  of  this 
kind.  Into  a  strong  iron  vessel  of  five  and  one  half 
gallons'  capacity  he  introduced  a  quantity  of  cork 
1  Showing  a  permanent  set  of  12.5  per  cent. 


Botany  and  Chemistry 


29 


and  filled  the  interstices  with  water,  carefully  get- 
ting out  all  the  air.  He  then  proceeded  to  pump 
in  water  until  definite  pressures  up  to  one  thousand 
pounds  per  square  inch  had  been  reached,  and  at 
every  one  hundred  pounds  the  weight  of  the  water 
pumped  in  was  determined.  In  this  way,  after 
many  repetitions,  he  obtained  the  decrease  of  vol- 
ume due  to  any  given  increase  of  pressure.  The 
observations  have  been  plotted  into  the  form  of  a 
curve  which  is  discernible  on  the  accompanying 
diagram. 


1100 


\ 


5000 


The  base  line  represents  a  cylinder  containing 
one  cubic  foot  of  cork  divided  by  the  vertical  lines 
into  ten  parts;  the  black  horizontal  lines,  accord- 
ing to  the  scale  on  the  left-hand  side,  represent  the 


30     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

pressures  in  pounds  per  square  inch  which  were 
necessary  to  compress  the  cork  to  the  correspond- 
ing volume.  Thus  to  reduce  the  volume  to  one 
half,  required  a  pressure  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  per  square  inch.  At  sixteen  hundred 
pounds  per  square  inch  the  volume  was  reduced 
to  forty-four  per  cent,  the  yielding  then  becoming 
very  little,  showing  that  the  solid  parts  of  the  cells 
had  come  together  and  formed  a  solid,  compact 
mass,  thus  corroborating  Mr.  Ogston's  determina- 
tion that  the  gaseous  part  of  cork  constitutes  about 
fifty-three  per  cent  of  its  bulk. 

In  further  study  it  has  been  found  that  no  matter 
what  compression  is  used,  providing  there  is  no 
disintegration,  the  corkwood  will  retain  just  that 
slight  spongy  character  that  so  marks  its  growth. 

In  analyzing  this  solid  matter,  Ure  found  by  treat- 
ing it  with  nitric  acid  the  yielding  was: 

White  fibrous  matter  (cellulose)  .     0.18  parts 

Resin  14.72      " 

Oxalic  acid   16.00      " 

Suberic  acid   .  .  14.4 


45.30  parts 

Chevruel  in  an  analysis  of  corkwood  states  that 
he  found  the  following  constitutents,  but  he  does 
not  give  percentages: 

Cerin,  a  soft  fragrant  resin. 
Yellow  and  red  coloring  matter. 
Quercitannic  acid. 
Gallic  acid. 


Botany  and  Chemistry  31 

A  brown  nitrogenous  substance. 

Salts  of  vegetable  acids. 

Calcium. 

Water. 

Suberic  acid. 

Suberin  (cellulose). 

I  am  inclined  to  think  that  Chevruel  selected  a 
poor  grade  of  cork,  full  of  stone  cells  and  Jasperado, 
as  his  findings  include  much  that  would  indicate 
that  was  the  case. 

In  further  defining  the  various  substances  which 
go  to  make  up  the  body  of  corkwood  the  one  that 
is  most  impressive  is  that  substance  that  is  peculiar 
to  cork  itself,  the  others  being  readily  known,  but 
suberic  acid  is  the  one  of  interest,  and  this  is  de- 
scribed by  Fownes  as  a  product  of  the  oxidation 
of  cork  by  nitric  acid;  is  a  white  crystalline  pow- 
der, sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  fusible  and 
volatile  by  heat,  the  chemical  formula  given  being 
(C4Hi404).  Suberic  acid  is  also  described  as  a  dibasic 
acid  which  forms  small  granular  crystals  very  sol- 
uble in  boiling  water,  alcohol  and  ether.  It  fuses 
at  300  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  sublimes  in  acidular 
crystals.  It  is  also  produced  when  nitric  acid  acts  on 
stearic,  margaric  or  oleic  acid.  The  chemical  analysis 
is  given  as  (CgHuO^  and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  it 
is  the  truer  one,  as  it  is  much  later  than  Fownes'. 

This  suberic  acid  has  been  further  broken  up  to 
ascertain  its  fundamental  characteristics  and  it  was 
found  to  partake  of  the  two  compounds  suberone 
and  suberate. 


32     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 


Suberone  (CiJH^C^)  being  regarded  as  the  ketone 
of  suberic  acid,  an  aromatic  liquid  compound  ob- 
tained when  suberic  acid  is  distilled  with  an  excess 
of  lime.1  Also  described  as  a  colorless  oil  with 
an  odor  of  peppermint  and  a  boiling  point  of  179 
to  181  degrees  Centigrade,  chemical  formula, 
Suberone  —  Cyclohaptanone  — 


Suberate  (CgH^lV^CM  is  known  as  the  salt  of 
suberic  acid  having  a  metal  cast,2  and  Suberin  or 
cellulose  3  —  is  that  portion  remaining  after  nitra- 
tion and  is  chemically  expressed  by  the  formula 
(C6Hio05).  Dr.  Robert  K.  Duncan,  Prof,  of  In- 
dustrial Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Kansas, 
informs  us  that  this  material  is  the  commonest  of 
common  things  4  and  when  dry,  forms  one  third 
of  all  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  world.  This 
mysterious  substance  is  the  structural  basis  of  the 
wood,  but  with  all  its  prominence  and  use,  we  know 
nothing  more  about  it  than  that  which  is  expressed 
in  the  formula. 

The  presence  of  this  cellulose  is  only  a  natural 
fact,  as  the  greater  part  of  plant  life  is  cellulose; 
nor  is  the  list  of  elements  that  go  to  make  up  the 

1  "  Standard  Dictionary." 

2  "Watt's  Dictionary"  ("m"  signifying  metal). 

3  "  Century  Dictionary." 

4  Review  of  Reviews,  September,  1906. 


Botany  and  Chemistry  33 

solid  matter  so  strange  and  unaccountable,  but 
the  quality  that  makes  it  a  wonderful  growth 
and  so  popular  above  its  fellows  is  its  lightness 
-  this  is  its  commendable  feature  and  it  is  light 
indeed. 

Ure  puts  the  specific  gravity  at  .24  and  this  is 
concurred  in  by  Brisbane. 

TEST  OF  CORKWOOD  FOR  ASCERTAINING  THE  POS- 
SIBLE PRESENCE  OF  AN  ESSENTIAL  OIL,  BY 
STEAM  DISTILLATION 

Two  tests  were  made  on  this  material  to  ascer- 
tain the  presence  of  an  essential  oil.  The  first 
showed  the  presence  of  an  oily  film,  resplendent  in 
colorings,  opalescent,  variegated  and  beautiful,  but 
odorless  and  of  such  small  quantity  that  it  may 
'  safely  be  said  "No  Oil." 

The  second  proved  the  same  as  the  first,  and 
although  the  strong  odor  of  cork  or  suberic  acid 
was  present,  no  oil  appeared. 

The  results  of  these  tests  indicate  that  there  is 
no  essential  oil  in  corkwood  obtainable  by  steam 
distillation. 

TEST  No.   I 

4  —  4—1913. 

A  copper  still,  supported  on  two  trunnions,  fitted 

with  a  dome  and  goose-neck,  which  terminated  in  a 

tin    coil    (water    cooled),    and    with    a    perforated 

bottom  through  which  the  steam  passed,  was  used. 

This  measured  two  inches  in  diameter  and  two 


34     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

inches  high,  from  the  perforated  plate  to  the  top 
of  the  pot,  the  dome  being  about  one  foot  higher. 

Into  this  still  was  placed  41  pounds  of  corkwood, 
as  it  comes  from  the  cutters  and  punchers  (scrap 
pieces),  no  preliminary  washing  or  preparing  being 
done;  this  41  pounds  filled  the  pot  or  the  still. 

All  things  made  tight,  using  an  asbestos  packing, 
the  steam  was  turned  on  at  70  pounds  and  run  for 
one  hour. 

TEST  No.   2 

4  —  15  —  1913. 

Same  still  used  as  in  Test  No.  1,  thirty  pounds 
of  ^a  clean,  good  grade  Granulated  Cork,  of  a  fine- 
ness to  pass  a  iV'  mesh,  was  put  into  the  still  — 
this  half  filling  same. 

Steam  turned  on  at  70  pounds  and  run  for  one 
hour. 

Tests  made  at  A.  J.  Crombie  &  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Anderson,  lire,  Chevruel,  Fownes,  Watts,  Bris- 
bane, men  of  science;  to  these  we  are  indebted 
for  the  little  that  is  known  of  corkwood,  and  al- 
though perhaps  much  more  could  be  said  by  elab- 
oration, it  will  suffice  to  record  the  facts  in  this 
monograph  for  the  purpose  involved. 

But  to  the  data  assembled  may  be  added  much 
in  commentation,  for  the  material  becomes  more 
interesting  the  more  it  is  studied,  and  most  natu- 
rally excites  comparison  with  other  materials  and 
substitutes,  as  well  as  calling  forth  a  discussion  as 
to  the  dangers  involved  by  its  presence  in  the  places 


Botany  and  Chemistry  35 

where,  by  skill  of  hand  and  machinery,  it  is  trans- 
formed into  the  many  commercial  forms,  noted  in 
this  article.  We  comment  upon  its  growth,  which 
is  truly  wonderful  and  all-absorbing  in  its  many 
interesting  phases;  it  takes  us  to  the  romance  of 
the  East  and  the  enchantment  of  the  Moorish  occu- 
pation; through  which  these  forests  of  cork-pro- 
ducing trees  passed  and  yet  remain  to  furnish  the 
present  generation.  We  comment  upon  its  light- 
ness and  buoyancy,  due  to  the  presence  of  air  and 
excess  of  hydrogen,  known  to  be  lighter  than  air; 
and  the  small  percentage  of  other  matter  which, 
being  of  less  importance,  make  its  other  quality  so 
renowned  as  to  make  it  the  most  wonderful  growth 
of  its  kind.  Its  imperviousness  to  water  and  other 
liquids  have  given  us  moments  of  reflection,  upon 
this  phenomenon,  but  now  known  to  be  because  of  the 
cellulose  composing  the  cell  walls  and  which,  when 
the  substance  is  under  compression,  practically  is 
all  that  remains,  except  for  the  small  quantity  of 
resin,  etc.,  to  resist  the  passage  of  liquids  or  gases. 
But  heretofore  when  these  commentations  have 
reached  the  burning  point,  its  physical  nature  was 
entirely  eliminated  from  the  conjecturing  and  the 
important  part  neglected,  that  as  the  cork  con- 
tained fifty-three  per  cent  of  air,  heat  of  450 
degrees  expands  to  the  point  of  explosion,  the  con- 
tents of  those  cells  nearest  the  surface,  which  giving 
up  their  oxygen  feed  the  flames  and  in  their  pas- 
sage help  to  disintegrate  the  cell  walls  and  make 
them  more  easily  ignited.  Thus  causing  a  rapid 


36     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

burning,  flash  fire  which,  in  its  fury,  Pluto  could 
not  rival,  only  racing  over  the  surface  of  the  cork, 
burning  but  slightly,  yet  helped  by  other  conditions, 
resulting  in  a  fire  destructive  and  fierce.  This 
rapid  burning  leaves  the  outer  surface  of  the  cork 
charred  and  flaky  and  causes  a  discoloration  be- 
neath it  attributed  to  the  dissolving  of  the  resins, 
etc.  Of  course  where  there  is  a  large  quantity 
of  corkwood  the  extent  of  the  burning  must 
necessarily  be  greater  and  the  depth  of  the 
char  increased.  But  it  appears  that  the  first 
flash  burning  produces  a  sort  of  protection  coat 
of  carbon  around  the  remaining  unburned  por- 
tions which  a  subsequent  flame  penetrates  with 
difficulty.1 

A  simple  experiment  to  show  this  depth  of  burn- 
ing, and  one  that  is  easy  to  do,  is  the  flash  and 
flame  test  which  was  found  of  interest. 

Two  pieces  of  cork  were  taken,  having  the  fol- 
lowing measurements  —  -ft-"  X  •&  X  H"  —  and  the 
first  piece  held  so  that  the  flame  of  a  gas  jet  would 
cause  a  flash  over  its  surface;  then  the  second  piece 
is  taken  and  held  within  the  flame  for  a  minute. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  corkwood  has  expanded 
and  the  dimensions  increased  to  the  following: 

Flash  Flame 

TV  X  If'  X  «"         «"  X  It"  X  H" 

1  In  the  making  of  insulation  material,  the  carbonization  of 
the  cork  is  accomplished  without  destruction  of  fibre  and  stands 
a  high,  flame  test. 


Botany  and  Chemistry  37 

showing  the  effects  of  the  heat  upon  the  tissue  and 
contents  of  the  cells. 

Now  in  scraping  these  samples  clean  of  all  char 
the  dimensions  will  return  to  the  following: 

Flash  Flame 

A"  X  H"  X  tt"         A"  X  «"  X  «" 

clearly  setting  forth  the  fact  that  the  char  is 
comparatively  light  in  both  cases,  ranging  from  J" 
to  I". 

To  this  cause  is  ascribed  the  burnability  of  cork 
having  by  careful  observation  and  experiment,  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  two  years,  studied  the 
results  of  numerous  fires  in  premises  where  cork 
was  being  worked  and  also  conducted  heat  applica- 
tions on  various  grades  of  cork  l  resulting  in  the 
foregoing  findings.2  Thus  it  is  found  that  cork  con- 
tains sufficient  air  to  supply  any  fire  in  it  and  pre- 
cludes the  necessity  of  free  access  to  any  outside 
supply  which  makes  it  a  material  worthy  to  be 
watched.  To  its  many  qualities  of  great  service 
to  man,  giving  him  a  material  which  from  the  ages 
past,  till  now,  has  proven  of  such  value,  must  be 
added  this  one,  no  less  important  than  others, 

1  Using  ordinary  glass   (armoured)  thermometer  for  ascer- 
taining degrees. 

2  One  thousand  degrees  Fahrenheit,  causing  no  greater  com- 
bustion than  the  lower  degree,  other  than  the  increased  burn- 
ing of  remaining  substance  after   the  flash,  due  to  the  higher 
temperature. 


38     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

which     heretofore     have     been     its     commendable 
features. 

Rather  than  attend  the  "cork"  through  the 
many  passages  of  commerce  and  manufacture,  it 
is  deemed  propitious  to  deviate  a  little  from  a 
natural  course,  i.e.,  from  the  growing  to  manufac- 
ture and  rather  advance  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
many  uses  to  which  this  material  is  put  and  its 
application  to  the  innumerable  arts,  and  then  take 
up  the  manufacture. 


USES  AND   APPLICATION 

MR.  H.  G.  GLASSPOOLE,1  writing  regarding 
the  uses  of  cork  by  the  ancients,  states:  "The 
cork-tree,  and  the  application  of  its  bark  to  useful 
purposes,  was  well  known  to  the  Egyptians,  Greeks 
and  Romans.  The  former  used  this  material  in  the 
construction  of  the  coffins  for  their  dead.  Theo- 
phrastus,  the  Greek  philosopher,  who  wrote  on 
botany  four  centuries  B.C.,  mentions  this  tree  among 
the  oaks,  under  the  name  of  'Phellus'  in  Book  Two 
of  his  'Historia  Plantarum,'  and  stated  that  it  was 
a  native  of  the  Pyrenees,  having  a  thick  fleshy 
bark  which  must  be  stripped  off  every  three  years 
to  prevent  it  from  perishing.  He  adds  that  it  was 
so  light  as  never  to  sink  in  water,  and  on  that 
account  might  be  used  for  many  purposes."  It  is 
the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  the  attention  of  the 
ancients  was  undoubtedly  called  to  this  particular 
bark  by  its  buoyancy,  and  as  their  fisheries  were 
extensive  its  usefulness  became  readily  apparent  to 
float  nets,  etc.,  or  to  use  even  in  the  construction 
of  their  boats,  and  its  sponginess  and  water-repel- 
lent properties  not  escaping  their  notice,  it  became 
a  most  likely  material  for  stoppers  of  casks  or 
amphorae  as  noted  by  Horace  in  Ode  iii,  8:  "Corti- 

1  Scientific  American  Supplement. 


40     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

cem  adstrictum  pice  dimovebit  amphorae."  Pliny, 
in  his  "Natural  History,"  XVI,  18,  describes  the 
tree  under  the  name  of  Suber  and  relates  every- 
thing said  by  Theophrastus  of  Phellus.  From  his 
account  we  learn  that  the  Roman  fishermen  used 
it  as  floats  to  their  nets  and  fishing  tackle,  and  as 
buoys  to  their  anchors.  The  use  of  these  buoys 
in  saving  life  appears  to  have  been  well  known  to 
the  ancients,  for  Lucian,  Epist.  i,  17,  mentions  that 
when  two  men,  one  of  whom  had  fallen  into  the 
sea,  and  another  who  jumped  after  to  afford  him 
assistance,  both  were  saved  by  means  of  an  anchor 
buoy.  The  use  of  this  substance  in  assisting  swim- 
mers was  not  unknown  to  the  Romans,  for  Plu- 
tarch in  his  Life  of  Camillus,  who  flourished  in 
Rome  400  B.C.,  gives  an  account  of  its  use  by  a 
messenger,  sent  to  the  Capitol,  then  besieged  by  the 
Gauls:  "Pontius  Cominius  having  dressed  himself 
in  mean  attire  under  which  he  concealed  some 
pieces  of  cork.  He  could  not  pass  the  river  by  the 
bridge,  therefore  took  off  his  clothes,  which  he 
fastened  upon  his  head,  and  having  laid  himself 
upon  the  pieces  of  cork  swam  over  and  reached  the 
city."  The  use  of  cork  as  stoppers  was  entirely 
unknown  to  the  Romans,  but  instances  of  its  being 
employed  may  be  seen  in  Cato's  "De  Re  Rustica," 
Cap.  120,  but  this  did  not  happen  frequently  or 
more  would  be  said  of  it. 

The  convivial  customs  of  those  days  had  no  con- 
nection with  the  bottle,  glass  bottles  being  of  a 
much  later  invention.  Instead  of  having  cham- 


Uses  and  Application  41 

pagne  or  hock  to  be  liberated  from  the  bottle  by 
the  corkscrew  at  their  feasts,  the  guests  filled  their 
drinking  cups  of  gold,  silver,  crystal  or  beechwood 
from  a  two-handled  amphora,  a  kind  of  earthen- 
ware pitcher,  in  which  their  choice  wines  used 
to  be  kept.  The  mouths  of  these  vessels  were 
stopped  with  wood  and  covered  with  a  mastic, 
composed  of  pitch,  chalk  and  oil  to  prevent  air 
spoiling  the  wine  or  evaporation  taking  place. 
Columella,  who  wrote  one  of  the  earliest  works 
on  agriculture,  gives  directions  for  preparing 
this  cement. 

The  employment  of  cork  for  stoppers  of  bottles 
appears  to  have  come  into  use  about  the  seven- 
teenth century,  when  glass  bottles,  of  which  no 
mention  is  made  before  the  fifteenth  century,  began 
to  be  generally  introduced.  Before  that  period 
apothecaries  used  stoppers  of  wax,  which  were  not 
only  much  more  expensive  but  far  more  trouble- 
some. In  1553,  when  C.  Stephanus  wrote  his 
"Praedium  Rusticum,"  cork  stoppers  appear  to 
have  been  very  little  known  in  France,  for  he  states 
that  this  material  was  used  principally  for  soles  in 
that  country.  It  is  not  known  when  cork  and 
corks  began  to  be  generally  used,  but  in  that  very 
amusing  and  instructive  diary  of  Mr.  Samuel  Pepys 
the  following  entry  is  found:  "14  July  1666"  After 
having  written  to  the  Duke  of  York  for  money  for 
the  fleet,  I  went  down  Thames  Street  and  there 
agreed  for  four  or  five  tons  of  cork  to  be  sent  to 
the  fleet,  being  a  new  device  to  make  barricades 


42     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

with  instead  of  junts  (old  cable),"  but  he  does  not 
inform  us  how  the  material  answered.1 

In  Evelyn's  time  (1664)  cork  was  much  used  by 
old  persons  for  linings  to  the  soles  of  their  shoes, 
whence  the  German  name  for  it,  "  Pantoffelholtz " 
or  slipper  wood.  The  Venetian  dames,  Evelyn 
says,  used  it  for  their  choppings  or  high-heeled 
shoes  to  make  them  appear  taller  than  nature  in- 
tended they  should  be.  The  poor  of  Spain  lay 
planks  of  cork  by  their  bedside  to  tread  on  instead 
of  carpets.  Sometimes  they  line  the  inside  of  their 
houses,  built  with  stone,  with  this  bark,  which  ren- 
ders them  very  warm  and  corrects  the  moisture  of 
the  air.  London  relates  that  in  the  celebrated  con- 
vent at  Gintra,  Portugal,  several  articles  of  furni- 
ture are  made  of  this  tree.  Virgin  cork,  or  the 
first  bark  of  the  tree,  is  now  very  much  used  for 
window  flower  boxes,  grottoes,  etc.,  while  the  sub- 
sequent grades  are  used  for  small  architectural  and 
geognostic  models.  Cork  was  formerly  employed 
in  medicine  even  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Pliny, 
as  he  tells  us  that  the  bark  of  the  cork  tree,  pul- 
verized and  taken  in  warm  water,  arrests  hemor- 
rhage at  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  and  the  ashes  of 
it  taken  in  warm  wine  are  highly  extolled  as  a  cure 
for  spitting  blood  (see  Pliny,  "Nat.  Hist."  b.  124). 
In  modern  time  powdered  cork  has  been  applied 
as  a  styptic  and  hung  about  the  necks  of  nurses. 
It  was  thought  to  possess  the  power  of  stopping 
the  secretion  of  milk.  Burnt  cork  mixed  with 

1  I  have  subsequently  learned  that  this  proved  a  failure. 


Uses  and  Application  43 

sugar  of  lead  has  been  used  as  an  application  to 
piles.  See  Pereira's  "Materia  Medica." 

Ground  cork  and  India  rubber  formed  the  basis  of 
Kamptulicon,  the  soft  unresounding  material  which 
covered  the  floor  of  the  reading  rooms  of  the  British 
Museum."  In  further  describing  the  many  uses  to 
which  cork  is  applied,  reference  is  made  to  the 
resume  of  Mr.  Good  in  "La  Nature,"  which  is  in- 
corporated with  a  few  slight  changes. 

"The  various  applications  of  cork  that  we  are 
now  going  to  pass  in  review  are  worthy  of  descrip- 
tion, as  each  of  such  applications  has  its  raison 
d'etre  in  one  or  more  of  the  physical  or  chemical 
properties  of  cork  bark.  The  manufacture  of 
stoppers  utilizes,  in  the  first  place,  the  imperme- 
ability of  the  bark,  and,  in  the  second,  the  latter' s 
elasticity  and  imputrescibility,  the  remarkable  light- 
ness playing  no  role  therein. 

Before  entering  upon  a  study  of  the  industrial 
applications  of  cork,  in  grouping  them  according 
to  the  various  qualities  of  this  product,  we  must 
return  to  the  "male"  cork,  derived  from  the  first 
barking  of  the  tree.  It  has  been  said,  because  of 
its  slight  elasticity  and  numerous  fissures,  this 
product  has  but  little  commercial  value,  and  shall 
have  mentioned  its  principal  application  when  we 
have  stated  that  it  is  used  in  the  decoration  of 
parks  and  gardens.  An  endeavor  has  been  made, 
but  without  success,  to  manufacture  from  it,  mills 
for  decorticating  rice. 

Certain  parts  of  it  can  be  converted  into  small 


44     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

stoppers.  In  the  country  where  it  is  produced,  it 
is  used  for  making  water  conduits,  beehives  and 
shelves  on  which  to  preserve  objects  from  damp- 
ness. Mixed  with  a  mortar  of  clay,  the  Kabyles 
use  it  for  the  walls  of  their  dwellings,  and  also,  in 
lieu  of  tiles,  as  a  roofing  material  for  their  primi- 
tive habitations.  It  is  used  also  by  fishermen  as 
floats  for  their  nets. 

These  various  applications  were  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  as  shown  by  the  works  of 
Theophrastus  and  Pliny.  The  latter  says  of  the 
cork-oak:  "Nothing  is  utilized  but  its  bark,  which 
is  very  thick,  and  which  is  renewed  in  measure  as  it 
is  removed.  This  bark  is  often  used  for  the  buoys 
of  anchors  and  ships  and  of  fishermen's  nets,  for 
the  bungs  of  casks,  and  for  women's  winter  foot 
gear.  The  Greeks  called  the  cork-oak  the  'bark 
tree'.  .  .  Cork  bark  is  used  as  a  covering  for 
roofs."  ("Hist.  Nat.,"  xvi,  18.)  As  for  the  chips, 
they  can  be  used  as  an  isolating  material  to  pre- 
vent freezing.  Reduced  to  fragments,  they  furnish 
an  excellent  material  for  covering  circus  rings. 

Let  us  return  to  "female"  cork,  which  is  much 
better  adapted  for  being  worked,  and  the  grain  of 
which  is  much  more  homogeneous.  In  this  form 
cork  bark  constitutes  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat 
and  sound,  and  renders  valuable  services  in  the 
industries  as  a  material  for  preventing  the  cooling 
of  steam  pipes  and  generators,  and  preventing  the 
melting  of  ice  in  ice  houses,  or  the  heating  of 
apparatus  for  producing  cold. 


Uses  and  Application  45 

It  is  the  basis  of  a  certain  number  of  cements, 
and  coatings  for  preventing  the  escape  of  heat, 
which  are  applied  to  pipes,  steam  domes,  hot  water 
reservoirs,  etc.,  and  upon  the  composition  of  which 
we  shall  not  dwell  here.  As  for  jacketing  with 
cork  alone;  the  first  method  consists  in  placing 
narrow  strips  of  cork,  whose  edges  touch  each  other, 
along  steam  pipes  and  cylinders,  and  fastening 
them  by  means  of  wire.  A  pipe  thus  jacketed  is 
tangent  internally  to  all  these  strips,  and  a  section 
of  the  whole  shows  a  circle  inscribed  in  a  polygon. 
In  the  second  system  thin  strips  of  cork,  fastened 
to  canvas  with  India  rubber  cement,  are  wound 
around  the  pipe  spirally.  Finally,  a  third  method 
of  jacketing  consists  in  the  use  of  two  half  cylin- 
ders that  exactly  fit  the  exterior  of  the  steam  pipe. 
These  cylinders,  which  can  be  made  of  any  desired 
length,  are  made  of  powdered  cork  and  starch,  and 
are  covered  with  a  spirally  wound  strip  of  calico, 
which  may  be  coated  with  tar  or  any  suitable  kind 
of  paint.  Each  of  these  systems  permits  of  obtain- 
ing a  great  saving  in  fuel. 

As  cork  is  likewise  a  very  bad  conductor  of 
sound,  it  is  successfully  used  on  the  doors  of  con-  \ 
suiting  rooms,  and  for  making  floors  for  hospitals, 
etc.  Finally,  in  the  manufacture  of  certain 
stringed  instruments,  it  is  used  to  prevent  a  loss 
of  sound. 

The  slight  density  of  cork,  as  compared  with 
water,  and  its  impermeability  to  liquids,  make  it 
an  excellent  float,  capable  not  only  of  remaining 


46     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

on  the  surface,  but  also  of  supporting  quite  heavy 
bodies  thereon.  We  shall  be  content  to  mention 
the  annular  cork  float  used  in  night  lamps,  the 
square  block  in  which  bath  thermometers  are  fixed, 
and  the  fisherman's  dobber. 

'  It  is  cork,  too,  that  is  used  by  preference  in  the 
manufacture  of  swimming  and  life-saving  appara- 
tus, to  which  inventors  have  devoted  much  thought. 
Very  many  vessels  are  provided  with  cork  mat- 
tresses, which,  in  cases  of  shipwreck,  render  the 
greatest  services.  For  example,  the  ship  Constant, 
which  sailed  from  Anvers  for  Brazil  in  1845,  was 
wrecked  on  the  night  of  October  12th,  at  twelve 
miles  from  St.  Thanes,  but,  thanks  to  the  cork  life 
preservers  and  mattresses  that  she  had  on  board, 
not  one  of  the  crew  was  lost.  As  for  life-saving 
buoys,  properly  so  called,  they  consist  of  several 
cork  planks  which  are  given  an  annular  form,  and 
are  provided  with  free  ropes  that  are  knotted  here 
and  there  so  that  they  may  be  easily  grasped. 
From  the  stern  of  every  vessel  a  buoy  of  this  kind 
is  suspended  by  a  rope  that  may  be  at  once  cut 
when  the  cry  of  "A  man  overboard!"  is  heard. 
These  buoys  are  usually  covered  with  canvas 
coated  with  a  paint  that  serves  to  preserve  it.  It 
is  also  possible  to  save  a  person  who  has  fallen  into 
the  water  at  a  certain  distance  from  a  wharf  by 
means  of  floats.  This  device  consists  of  a  piece 
of  rattan  provided  with  points  around  which  molten 
lead  has  been  poured,  and  the  whole  is  then  sur- 
rounded with  cork  in  chips,  and  covered  externally 


Uses  and  Application  47 

with  canvas  and  a  network  to  protect  the  affair 
against  wear. 

Fenders  are  canvas  bags  that  are  filled  with 
cork  and  are  placed  along  the  sides  of  ships  or  along 
docks  in  order  to  deaden  the  shock  in  case  of  a 
collision.  Such  are  the  principal  uses  rendered  to 
navigation  by  cork. 

It  has  already  been  seen,  by  the  extract  from 
Pliny,  that  Roman  ladies  preserved  their  feet  from 
cold  by  means  of  cork  soles.  Such  a  use  of  cork 
is  still  in  vogue.  In  addition  to  these  soles,  which 
are  flat,  there  are  others  that  have  nothing  to  do 
with  hygiene,  and  are  merely  connected  with 
fashion.  Such  are  the  Louis  Quatorze  talonettes, 
designed  to  increase  the  stature  without  exaggerat- 
ing the  heel  of  the  shoe.  Female  dancers  wear 
linings  of  this  kind  in  their  shoes,  which,  as  well 
known,  have  flat  soles.  A  thin  sheet  of  cork  en- 
closed in  the  sole  of  the  shoe  would,  we  think, 
prove  very  useful  to  troops  on  a  march  during  bad 
weather. 

Cork  is  not  only  useful  as  an  application  to  foot 
gear,  but  also  renders  great  service  in  head  gear, 
and,  in  the  form  of  helmets,  has  preserved  a  large 
number  of  soldiers  from  death  by  sunstroke  in 
tropical  countries.  We  find  it  again,  in  the  form 
of  very  thin  sheets,  in  the  interior  of  beaver  hats, 
where  it  is  used  as  a  protection  against  heat.  It  is 
also  used  in  these  same  hats  as  a  sweat  band,  in 
lieu  of  leather.  In  ladies'  toilets,  the  cork  serves 
to  make  the  carcasses  of  the  birds  that  decorate 


48     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

their  head  gear.  Manufacturers  of  dress  trimmings 
use  cork  molds,  which  they  cover  with  silk  or 
cotton,  for  ornamenting  cloaks,  etc.  The  lightness 
of  cork  can  alone  explain  the  great  size  of  these 
balls,  olives,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  larger  than  a 
hen's  egg. 

A  few  years  ago,  a  Paris  house  sold  cork  cravats, 
and  we  have  recently  seen,  exposed  in  a  show  case, 
some  children's  costumes,  in  which  the  sailor's 
collar  was  of  thin  sheet  cork  decorated  with  colored 
designs.  Although  cork  gowns  have  not  yet  ap- 
peared, we  have  waterproofs  composed  of  thin  sheet 
cork  cemented  between  two  pieces  of  silk.  These 
cloaks  have  the  advantage  over  those  made  of 
rubber  of  not  allowing  air  to  pass  through  them. 

There  is  also  a  curious  application  of  cork  in 
the  manufacture  of  a  fabric  that  renders  those  who 
are  clothed  with  it  insubmergible. 

We  can  mention  but  few  of  the  many  applica- 
tions of  cork*  new  ones  of  which  are  being  dis- 
covered every  day,  so  shall  confine  ourselves  to 
recalling  the  services  rendered  by  this  valuable 
product  in  surgical  prosthesis  and  for  the  use  of 
naturalists,  etc.  In  domestic  life,  it  is  used  for 
bath  steps,  and  for  making  rolling  pins  for  crush- 
ing almonds  without  absorbing  the  oils  as  wood 
would  do.  Thin  sheets  of  it  are  used  for  making 
fancy  labels  for  wines.  The  ease  with  which  it 
may  be  cut,  turned  and  worked  causes  it  to  be 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  small  objects, 
such  as  rural  landscapes  and  the  reproductions  of 


Uses  and  Application  49 

monuments,  some  of  which  are  genuine  works  of 
art.  We  may  likewise  mention,  among  objects 
made  of  cork,  cases  of  various  forms  for  sending 
bottles  by  mail,  spools  for  allowing  of  the  cheap 
carriage  of  silk,  the  old-fashioned  inkstand,  the 
thick  penholder  for  preventing  writer's  cramp,  the 
cigar  holder  and  many  fancy  objects  that  would 
take  too  long  to  enumerate.  There  is  perhaps  no 
calling  that  does  not  have  to  make  more  or  less 
use  of  cork.  Polishers  of  gold  have  used  it  from 
time  immemorial,  in  the  form  of  narrow  strips,  for 
rubbing  their  work  with  rouge.  The  wheels  with 
which  crystals  are  polished  are  faced  with  it,  and 
watchmaker's  lens  mounted  in  cork,  the  lightness 
of  which  prevents  the  muscles  of  the  face  from 
tiring. 

In  the  industries,  driving  pulleys  are  now  begin- 
ning to  be  provided  with  cork  in  order  to  secure 
an  adhesion  of  the  belting.  In  carpenter  shops 
these  bands  of  cork  are  now  advantageously  replac- 
ing rubber  ones  for  covering  the  pulleys  over 
which  the  band  saw  runs.  The  stoppers  of  nursing 
bottles  are  now  being  replaced  by  hygienic  ones  of 
cork,  which,  being  very  cheap,  can  be  changed  as 
soon  as  the  presence  of  ferments  is  suspected^ 
Cork  is  likewise  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
children's  toys;  it  serves,  for  example,  for  fixing 
the  wig  on  dolls'  heads.  Is  it  necessary  to  recall 
the  cork  of  pop-guns  and  pistols,  and  the  cork 
battledores  and  shuttlecocks  used  for  playing  with 
indoors?  These  few  data  will  serve  to  show  that 


50     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

but  few  products  are  capable  of  so  many  diverse 
applications  as-  cork  is;  and  the  question  may  be 
asked  whether  it  would  be  possible  to  substitute 
anything  else  for  it,  in  case  the  supply  should  be- 
come exhausted. 

The  manufacture  of  stoppers  and  of  the  various 
objects  that  we  have  just  enumerated  furnishes  a 
considerable  quantity  of  chips,  which  along  with 
the  waste  derived  from  the  collecting  of  the  ma- 
terial, and  with  old,  second-hand  corks,  constitutes 
the  crude  material  destined  to  supply  certain  im- 
portant industries,  which,  for  the  sake  of  complete- 
ness, must  be  mentioned. 

We  have  first  the  cork  powder  industry,  which 
manufactures  powders  of  various  degrees  of  fine- 
ness. The  coarsest  powder  is  used  for  packing 
fragile  objects,  on  account  of  its  elasticity,  coupled 
with  its  lightness,  which  permits  of  a  great  saving 
in  freight  charges. 

The  finest  powder  forms,  "liegine"  or  "suberine," 
whose  balsamic  properties  are  well  known  to 
hygienists,  and  which  may  be  used  as  a  substitute 
for  lycopodium,  starch  and  fecula  as  an  applica- 
tion to  the  skin  of  babes.  Un4er  the  name  of 
"zifa  powder,"  an  insect  powder  has  been  made 
composed  of  cork  and  phenol.  Fire  lighters  have 
likewise  been  made  from  cork  powder;  but  this 
and  the  last  named  application  have  not  amounted 
to  much. 

We  cannot  enter  into  much  detail  in  regard  to 
the  manufacture  of  linoleum,  notwithstanding  the 


Uses  and  Application  51 

interest  that  it  presents.     The  manufacture  began 
in  Scotland,  and  is  tending  to  settle  in  our  own 
country.     Linoleum  is  made  by  intimately  mixing  ' 
cork  powder  with  oxidized  linseed  oil.     The  pastel 
thus  prepared  is  spread  over  canvas  if  the  intention  > 
is  to  manufacture  carpets,  but  over  paper  if  it  isj 
desired  to  make  hangings.      The  color  of  linoleum/ 
which  is  the  same  as  that  of  cork,  only  a  shade 
darker,  can  be  enlivened  by  colored  designs.     When 
applied  to  damp  walls,  linoleum  is  capable  of  re- 
ceiving oil  paintings  of  a  more  stable  nature  than 
those  executed  upon  wood,  which  warps,  or  upon 
other    building    materials,    which    crack,    such    as 
plaster,  for  example.     It  can  also  be  used  for  deco- 
rated ceilings  for  public  halls,  cafes,  etc. ;  and  when 
such    ceilings    become    black    through    smoke    and 
dust,  they  can  be  washed. 

As'  a  carpet,  linoleum  renders  flooring  perfectly  \ 
insonorous.  It  converts  damp  and  unhealthy 
apartments  into  healthy  and  warm  places  of  habi- 
tation. Used  in  kitchens  and  offices,  it  has  the 
advantage  of  not  being  spotted  by  fatty  matters. 
It  has  been  generally  adopted  in  our  naval  and 
merchant  ships,, where  the  use  of  it  has  given  a 
great  setback  to  the  oil  cloth  industry. 

A  new  decorative  product, "  lino-burgau,"  obtained 
by  embossing  linoleum,  possesses  the  iridescent  re- 
flections of  nacre,  due  to  the  application  of  colored 
varnish  along  with  a  bronzing  of  certain  parts. 
Notwithstanding  its  expensive  nature,  we  believe 
that  there  is  a  great  future  in' store  for  it. 


52     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

The  manufacture  of  agglomerates  of  cork  is 
becoming  very  widespread  in  France.  We  have 
already  mentioned  the  use  of  artificial  cork  for 
jacketing  steam  pipes,  and  we  have  stated  that 
this  product  is  obtained  by  mixing  cork  powder  and 
starch  under  pressure.  This  dried  paste  can  be 
given  the  most  diverse  forms,  and  be  made  of  any 
thickness.  Another  substance,  called  brick  paste, 
is  obtained  by  mixing  the  coarsest  cork  powder 
with  milk  of  lime,  and,  after  compression  and  dry- 
ing, constitutes,  under  the  form  of  bricks  and  slabs, 
an  excellent  material  for  the  construction  of  party 
walls,  for  covering  damp  walls  and  sloping  roofs. 

In  the  cellars  of  breweries,  these  bricks  diminish 
the  melting  of  the  ice.  In  gunpowder  works,  they 
prevent  the  caking  of  the  powder  through  damp- 
ness, and,  in  case  of  an  explosion,  their  friability 
and  lightness  lessen  the  importance  of  the  catas- 
trophe. They  are  also  used  as  a  foundation  for 
flooring  in  order  to  destroy  its  disagreeable  sonor- 
ousness. In  the  spinning  mills  of  Alsace  and  the 
west  of  France,  they  have  given  excellent  results, 
both  as  regards  their  resistance  to  the  passage  of 
sound,  heat  and  cold,  and  their  cheapness. 

Cork  chips  and  waste,  when  distilled,  furnish  an 
illuminating  gas  that  burns  with  more  brilliancy 
than  that  made  from  coal,  and  does  not,  like  the 
latter,  give  off  sulphureous  emanations  that  tarnish 
frames  and  other  gilded  objects.  The  city  of 
Nerac  was  lighted  with  cork  gas  for  a  certain  length 
of  time,  but  the  use  of  it  had  to  be  given  up  on 


Uses  and  Application  53 

account  of  the  difficulty  of  storing  the  chips,  which, 
with  but  little  weight,  took  up  an  enormous  space. 
This  gas,  in  view  of  its  slight  density  and  its  purity, 
would  prove  an  excellent  one  for  the  inflation  of 
balloons. 

Finally,  cork  parings  and  waste,  properly  car- 
bonized, produce  Spanish  or  cork  black,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  durable  blacks  known  in 
painting." 

The  recent  uses  for  corkwood  are,  as  a  float  in 
the  carburetter  of  an  automobile,  the  cork  insert 
in  the  periphery  of  a  pulley,1  cork  paper  for 
cigarette  tips,  a  wadding  for  shot-gun  cartridges, 
cork-coated  fabric  for  balloons,  as  a  filling  for 
automobile  tires,  as  a  disk  in  the  non-refillable  bot- 
tle, for  the  making  of  casks  and  barrels  in  which  to 
store  wine,  and  the  ground  cork  wood  for  shipping 
fruit,  etc.  in,  to  prevent  spoiling. 

SUBSTITUTES 

Of  course,  no  matter  what  the  substance,  a 
substitute  is  always  sought  for,  and  this  has  been 
the  case  with  cork,  but  with  very  unfruitful 
results.  "A  primitive  material  used  for  bottle 
stoppers  consisted  of  the  roots  of  liquorice;  the 
spongy  substance  of  another  tree  called  'Spondies 
Lutea,'  which  abounds  throughout  the  marshy 
regions  of  South  America  and  there  called  'Mon- 
bia,'  was  also  used  in  the  same  way,  as  also  a 

1  See  Lawrence  Whitcomb's  article  in  Industrial  Engineering, 
September,  1910. 


54     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

product  called  'Myssa,'  which  contains  some  of 
the  elements  of  cork.1  Another  substitute  is  men- 
tioned in  Henley's  "Twentieth  Century  Receipts" 
as  follows:  Wood  pulp  three  parts;  cornstarch 
pith  one  part;  gelatin  one  part;  glycerine  one 
part;  water  four  parts;  20  per  cent  solution 
formic  aldehyde;  and  still  another  in  the  "Handy- 
man's 'Inquire  Within,'"  by  Haslock,  called  "Phel- 
losene,"  a  French  invention  consisting  of  powdered 
cork  mixed  with  a  solution  of  nitro-cellulose  in  acte- 
tone:  compressed  and  dried.  The  wood  of  Anona 
palustris  growing  in  the  West  Indies,  and  called 
the  alligator's  apple,  is  .used  by  the  negroes  to  stop 
their  jugs  and  calabashes  also,  and  a  Mr.  Brockedon 
invented  a  substitute  as  noted  in  "Knight's  Cyclo- 
pedia," the  core  of  which  was  cotton  twisted  into 
strands,  wound  with  flax  and  the  whole  covered 
with  India  rubber.  Cork's  competitor  in  buoyancy, 
"balsa  wood,"  is  in  no  wise  constituted  to  take 
its  place,  although  20  per  cent  lighter;  as  it  is  a 
fibrous  growth  and  hygroscopic,  requiring  a  coat 
of  water-proofing  solution  before  it  can  be  used 
even  for  life-preservers;  rubber,  its  close  second, 
in  the  manufacture  of  stoppers  is  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  it,  and  although  there  have  been  many 
patent  devices  for4  sealing  bottles,  such  as  the 
porcelain  stopper,  crimped  metal  stoppers,  etc., 
the  cork  stopper  still  reigns  as  the  best  of  them 
all. 

1  Chambers  Journal. 


MANUFACTURE 


IN  describing  the  manner  and  process  of  convert- 
ing the  corkwood  into  the  various  commercial 
forms,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  a  scientific 


CORK- WOOD 


VIRGIN -CORK  WOOD 


STOPPERS] 


WASTE 


CORK  BOARD 


CORK  FLOUR 


NOVELTIES 


CORK  DISKS 


GRANULATED  PACKING 
MATERIAL 


SPANISH  BLACK 


exposition  of  all  the  details,  as  being  inconsistent 
with   the  character   of  this   monograph,   nor  will 


56     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

any  other  processes  be  described  than  the  ones  in 
which  the  material  being  worked,  is  cork.  This 
may  exclude  much  of  interest  to  the  reader,  but  the 
intent  of  this  little  work  is  purely  a  corkwood 
exposition,  and  the  desire  to  keep  it  so  must  pre- 
vail. 

In  taking  up  the  processes  of  manipulation  we 
naturally  start  from  the  beginning,  but  the  begin- 
ning in  this  case  has  a  peculiar  significance  as 
relating  to  the  whole,  for  it  is  apparent  to  utilize 
corkwood  to  the  fullest  extent  its  qualities  must 
be  studied  and  the  best,  used  first,  so  that  the  be- 
ginning of  the  corkwood  industry  is  peculiar  in 
this  fact,  that  it  takes  the  best  part  and  leaves 
but  scrap,  which  must  be  studied  carefully  to 
realize  the  value  lost  in  the  first  process;  therefore, 
in  the  manufacture  of  one  article  of  corkwood 
it  is  necessary  to  make  provision  for  the  scrap 
created,  and  this  is  a  characteristic  of  all  such 
establishments. 

RAW  STOCK 

The  baled  cork,  as  received,  is  our  first  consid- 
eration, for  its  bulk,  being  out  of  all  proportion  to 
its  value,  attracts  the  attention  at  once. 

As  in  all  business  where  the  raw  stock  is  con- 
veyed from  a  distance  and  there  is  a  possibility  of 
delay  in  shipments,  a  large  stock  must  necessarily 
be  kept  on  hand,  and  this  feature  is  very  pro- 
nounced in  and  about  a  "cork  factory."  Great 
piles  appear  in  the  open  or  within  large  sheds, 


Manufacture  57 


covering  much  space,  and  sometimes  in  the  fac- 
tory itself. 

This  stock  is  carefully  watched  and  care  taken  to 
keep  it  large  enough  to  supply  all  needs  for  a 
long  time  as  a  shortage  in  raw  material  would  not 
only  mean  no  work,  but  the  loss  of  business,  due 
to  the  inability  to  supply  first-grade  material, 
for  this  is  the  prime  factor,  the  various  other 
grades  being  compelled  to  await  a  favorable  market. 
Appended  is  a  diagram  that  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  utilization  of  corkwood. 

The  corkwood  bale  as  received,  measures  as 
a  general  rule  2'  X  2'  7"  X  4'  and  is  securely 
strapped  with  iron  bands  about  one  inch  in  width 
and  a  thickness  of  Ty  to  ^j",  and  the  weight  de- 
pending upon  the  quality  of  corkwood  ranging 
from  150  pounds  to  200  pounds  per  bale. 

SORTING 

The  first  operation,  that  is,  the  first  thing  done 
with  the  corkwood,  is  the  sorting.  This  is  becom- 
ing more  important  as  the  uses  of  cork  increase, 
as  various  grades  can  be  used  for  so  many  par- 
ticular things  now,  without  the  necessity  of  being 
called  a  by-product;  but  the  principal  divisions 
are:  superfine,  fine,  common  and  coarse. 

These  of  course  are  now  extended  to  many 
classes,  and  is  resulting  in  careful  scrutiny  of  the 
shipments  and  stock,  the  sorter  becoming  an  expert, 
and  an  increasing  factor  in  the  business.  His 


58     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

knowledge  not  only  including  the  grades  of  cork- 
wood, but  the  uses  to  which  the  various  grades 
may  be  put  so  that  waste  is  avoided  and  the  full 
value  gotten  out  of  all. 

CORK  STOPPER  MAKING 

After  the  sorting,  the  slabs  are  placed  in  steam 
boxes  and  subjected  to  a  steam  bath,  which  it  is 
claimed  softens  the  material  and  also  prepares  it 
for  the  scraper,  who  cleans  and  removes  the  dirt 
and  callous  or  "raspa"  accumulated  in  its  moun- 
tain home.  This  scraping  is  done  either  by  hand 
or  machine,  the  handwork  being  done  with  a  short 
handle,  curved  bladed  knife  called  a  "doladera," 
raspador  or  raspeta:  a  workman  being  able  to 
scrape  from  two  to  three  metric  quintals  of  cork 
in  a  day,  or  ten  hours.  The  scraper  machine  being 
a  vertical  steel  shaft  carrying  several  knives  placed 
at  a  very  slight  helix  and  making  about  1400  revolu- 
tions per  minute  and  will  scrape  from  ten  to  twelve 
metric  quintals1  per  day  or  ten  hours.  Cutting  the 
slabs  into  strips  or  fillets  (tiras  6'rebanadas)  is  the 
next  step.  These  strips,  the  width  of  which  is  equal 
to  the  length  of  the  cork  to  be  cut,  as  the  cutting 
is  done  across  and  not  with  the  grain,  were  for- 
merly cut  by  hand  with  a  knife  having  a  flat  sur- 
face and  curved  edge  called  "cuchilla  de  rebanar," 

1  The  metric  quintal  is  used  officially  in  Spain,  which  is 
equal  to  220.36  pounds,  the  Catalon  quintal  equaling  91.71 
pounds. 


Manufacture  59 


but  now  replaced  by  the  circular  knife,  which 
operates  the  same  as  a  rip-saw.  From  here  the 
strips  go  to  the  stopper-makers'  punches  or  block- 
ing machines.  This  machine  has  a  rotating  tubu- 
lar die  with  sharpened  edges  of  the  diameter  of 
the  cork  to  be  cut,  made  to  revolve  about  two 
thousand  revolutions  per  minute,  the  operator 
having  a  foot  lever  attachment  which  permits  him 
to  thrust  the  die  through  the  strips  of  cork  as  he 
holds  it  against  a  resisting  piece  parallel  with  the 
operating  plane  of  the  die.  Thus,  he  can  punch 
out  many  thousands  of  corks  a  day,  the  noise  of 
the  punches  being  a  very  characteristic  sound  in 
all  such  establishments.  The  operator,  of  course, 
must  use  care  to  avoid  defective  spots  in  the  bark, 
and  also  to  cut  the  corks  out  as  closely  together  as 
possible  so  as  to  reduce  waste  to  a  minimum. 
For  it  is  here  that  the  cork  manufacturer  seems  to 
lay  his  particular  lament.  If  he  could  but  make  his 
corks  the  sizes  most  in  demand,  ship  them  and 
thereby  do  a  business  that  would  clearly  figure 
up  the  year's  work,  and  perhaps  keep  a  surplus 
on  hand  for  unexpected  orders.  But  this  he  cannot 
do,  for  almost  every  cork  he  cuts  there  is  enough 
waste  material  to  make  three  or  four  smaller  sizes, 
and  this  he  fain  would  discard  if  it  were  not  for  the 
possible  profit  there  is  in  it;  and  consequently 
in  almost  every  cork  factory  will  be  found  a  large 
surplus  stock  of  all  sizes,  and  the  owner  anxi- 
ously hoping  that  some  one  will  take  them  off  his 
hands. 


60     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

The  stoppers  which  come  from  these  machines 
are  round  with  parallel  sides.  If  tapered  corks 
are  desired,  larger  at  the  upper  end  than  at  the 
lower,  the  cylindrical  or  straight  pieces  must  be 
passed  through  another  machine  which  handles 
them  deftly,  holding  them  against  the  edge  of 
another  circular  knife;  seemingly  motionless,  the 
only  outward  indication  of  the  speed  with  which  the 
keen  blade  is  revolving  being  a  delicate  shaving 
which  curls  upward  for  an  instant,  and  then  is 
drawn  away  by  air  suction  to  the  waste  bin,  where 
this  material  is  all  collected  and  used  in  various, 
useful  ways  as  will  be  shown  later.  In  cutting  the 
corks,  although  care  is  exercised,  many  will  be  im- 
perfect and  defective,  and  in  order  to  utilize  them 
they  are  cut  into  smaller  sizes  by  men  who  sit  at 
low  tables  and  deftly  handle  the  sharp-edged  knife, 
which  with  one  stroke  reduces  the  cork  to  the  size 
that  it  can  fill,  using  a  scale  which  is  apparently 
standard  with  all  cork  dealers. 

The  general  standard  of  corks  or  stoppers,  known 
as  the  United  States  standard,  is  as  follows: 


Manufacture 


61 


SCALE  OF  DIAMETER  OF  STOPPERS 
United  States  Standard,  showing  Diameter  at  Large  End 


No.    0 

"  2 

"  4 

"  6 

"  8 

"  10 

"  12 

"  14 

"  16 

"  18 

"  20 

"  22 


inch 


i 

I 

3 

4 

1 
1 

H 
U 
if 

n 
it 
if 


No.    1 

"  3 

"  5 

"  7 

"  9 

"  11 

"  13 

"  15 

"  17 

"  19 

"  24 

"  26 


inch. 


A 

tt 

u 

H 


1A 

1A 

1A 

H 

2 


Length  is  generally  designated  as  short,  regular,  extra  long, 
and  the  shape  as  tapered,  or  straight. 

This  classification  of  necessity  applies  to  the  trade 
and  gives  a  size  for  almost  any  character  of  work 
there  is,  though  another  general  classification  that 
is  used  principally  abroad,  is  as  follows:  — 

Thick  corks  having  more  than  31  millimeters  l  in  diameter. 
Ordinary  or  commercial,  from  25  to  31  millimeters. 
Bastard  corks,  from  23  to  25  millimeters. 
Thin  corks,  having  less  than  23  millimeters. 

These  classes  of  sizes  are  of  course  divided  again 
and  again  by  the  manufacturers.  To  this  size 
classification  must  be  added  a  quality  distinction, 
and  this  generally  takes  the  same  as  before  de- 

1  Millimeter  =  .0394  inch. 


62     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

scribed,  in  sorting  the  cork-board,  grading  down 
from  the  best  which  is  tawny  or  pink  in  color, 
with  a  fine  texture,  free  from  cracks,  stone  cells, 
or  other  blemishes. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  punch  is  now  employed 
in  most  corkwood  establishments,  but  there  are 
still  a  few  who  do  the  work  by  hand  and  maintain 
that  the  best  results  are  obtained  in  this  manner. 

Hand-cut  corks  or  stoppers  are  used  mostly  for 
the  high-class  wine  trade  and  are  a  little  more 
expensive  than  machine  cut.  There  is  also  a  hand 
machine  for  shaping  corks,  which  consists  of  a 
knife,  the  blade  of  which  is  placed  horizontally, 
joined  generally  to  a  piece  of  wood,  to  which  a 
back  and  forward  movement  is  given  similar  to 
that  of  a  carpenter's  plane.  In  moving,  the  knife 
turns  the  square  cork,  or  whatever  shape  it  may  be, 
by  a  series  of  belt  attachments,  and  takes  off  a  strip  of 
cork  (palilla)  more  or  less  thick,  according  to  the 
distance  from  the  axis  of  the  cork  and  the  edge  of 
the  blade;  the  principle  being  the  same  in  the  power 
machine,  if  these  are  parallel  the  resulting  cork 
will  be  cylindrical,  and  if  not,  it  becomes  conical. 

The  standard  size  stopper  is  the  prime  use  to 
which  corkwood  has  been  put,  and  in  the  making 
of  it  the  best  material  is  used;  this  material 
coming  in  varying  thicknesses,  it  sometimes  is  dif- 
ficult to  secure  enough  for  making  "  champagnes," 
so  some  manufacturers  produce  a  stopper  that 
answers  the  requirements  by  fastening  two  pieces 
of  thin  superfine  corkwood  together  with  a  rubber 


Manufacture  63 


cement  made  by  dissolving  pure  Para  rubber  in 
disulphide  of  carbon,  which  makes  a  very  good 
binder  and  not  lessening  the  quality  service  to  any 
appreciable  degree. 

After  the  corks  are  cut,  the  ends  are  not  always 
as  even  and  as  smooth  as  desired,  so  they  are 
taken  to  a  sandpaper  wheel  which  revolves  very 
rapidly  in  an  upright  position,  and  against  this 
the  corks  are  held  for  a  few  seconds  until  the  sur- 
face becomes  smooth  and  straight,  the  dust  cre- 
ated being  collected  and  used  in  various  ways.  (See 
"Waste  Utilization.") 

CORK-DISK  MAKING 
(See  "  Waste  Utilization  ") 

Since  the  Crown  Seal  stopper,  for  beer  bottles 
particularly,  has  come  into  vogue,  there  has  been 
a  great  demand  for  cork  disks  which  form  the 
medium  for  air  tightness  and  this  has  given  the 
cork-worker  an  opportunity  to  utilize  a  grade  of 
corkwood  that  usually  had  but  little  commercial 
value,  that  is,  a  thin  bark. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  for  the  uninitiated 
that  the  Crown  Seal  is  made  up  of  a  tin  cap, 
corrugated  on  the  lapped  edge,  for  gripping  the  top 
of  the  bottle,  a  corkwood  disk  and  a  water-proof 
paper  between  the  disk  and  cap,  a  very  ingenious 
device. 

As  you  have  already  read  in  a  previous  chapter 
that  corks  are  cut  vertical  parallel,  or,  to  state 


64     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

more  clearly,  the  axis  of  the  stopper  must  be  par- 
allel with  the  axis  of  the  tree  that  furnished  the 
bark;  and  the  desired  direction  is  easily  recogni- 
zable by  the  colored  striae  due  to  the  annual  layers 
of  suberous  substance  that  are  observed  in  the 
direction  of  its  axis,  this  rule  being  followed  be- 
cause cork  is  found  to  be  more  impervious  to  liquids 
if  cut  in  this  manner.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that 
if  disks  are  cut  horizontally  parallel,  that  is,  the 
annual  layers  running  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  disk,  this  grade  of  cork  can  be  utilized  to 
great  advantage.  The  mode  of  cutting  is  by  a 
horizontal  revolving  blade,  which  slices  the  cork 
to  the  desired  thickness,  usually  a  quarter  of  an 
inch,  and  then  it  follows  the  usual  course  of  punch- 
ing, etc.  From  these  operations  a  great  deal  of 
waste  accumulates,  and  this  would  be  a  great  loss 
if  methods  were  not  devised  for  its  utilization. 
Many  firms  work  up  this  waste  on  the  premises, 
but  most  of  it  is  shipped  out  and  its  conversion 
forms  a  separate  part  of  the  corkwood  industry, 
which  will  be  described  later.  We  might  say  now 
that  the  cork  is  made,  for  it  has  been  cut  and 
shaped  into  the  desired  commercial  size;  and  all 
that  remains  is  to  sort  them  and  ship  them  away. 
But  if  commerce  desires  sizes  and  quality,  it  has 
also  exacted  many  other  requirements  of  a  cork 
before  it  is  acceptable  and  we  will  now  take  up 
the  further  manipulation  of  cork  before  it  leaves 
the  factory.  Naturally,  this  corkwood,  coming  such 
a  distance  and  being  handled  by  so  many  in  the 


Manufacture  65 


general  processes  just  described,  gets  more  or  less 
dirty,  and  aside  from  that  perhaps  in  the  growing 
the  tissue  has  not  remained  as  white  as  is  desired, 
so  before  the  cork  can  leave  the  factory  it  has  to 
be  washed  or  cleaned.  And  in  this  washing  I 
will  not  say  that  there  is  not  an  attempt  to  im- 
prove the  looks  of  the  corks  in  order  to  get  a  better 
price.  Now  this  washing  or  bleaching  is  carried 
on  in  the  simplest  manner  and  is  just  soaking  the 
corks  in  water  and  a  chemical  and  then  placing 
them  in  a  centrifugal  spinner,  which  is  nothing  more 
than  a  perforated  receptacle  made  to  revolve  within 
an  iron  jacket,  which  is  connected  to  a  drain, 
naturally  forcing  the  material  against  the  periph- 
ery and  thereby  causing  the  excess  water  and 
acid  to  pass  out  through  the  perforations,  this 
system  becoming  quite  common  in  cork  factories 
to-day,  greatly  facilitating  the  drying,  which  is 
done  mostly  by  the  atmosphere.  This  is  all  there 
is  to  the  mechanical  part,  but  curiosity  prompts 
us  to  inquire  what  chemicals  are  used  to  clean  the 
corks,  so  I  have  ascertained  the  principal  ones, 
but  of  course  every  manufacturer  will  have  his  own 
way  of  doing  this  part  of  the  work,  although  the 
principle  remains  the  same.  An  old  way  was  to 
wash  them  in  water  containing  chloride  of  tin 
or  oxalic  acid  and  then  subjecting  them  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  but  the  sulphur  bleach 
has  been  discontinued.  Bioxalate  of  potash  has 
also  been  used  in  solution,  as  also  chloride  of  lime, 
ammonia  and  sulphuric  acid.  Another  way  is  to 


66     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

wash  in  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid  and  then  immerse  in  a  solution  of  sodium 
hyposulphate  and  hydrochloric  acid,  finally  washing 
with  a  solution  of  soda  and  water.  All  of  these 
produce  the  desired  effect  when  mere  cleaning  and 
bleaching  is  all  that  is  required:  but  in  the  poorer 
grade  of  cork,  mostly  a  thick  cork  that  has  been 
jaspered  or  contains  micro-organisms,  a  system  of 
treatment  with  formol  or  methylal,  ethyl  alcohol 
or  spirit  wine  and  formaldehyde  and  impregnating 
with  casein  has  been  used.  These  bleaches  are 
applied  to  regular  stoppers  and  disks  alike,  but  in 
addition  to  this  the  disks  are  given  a  bath  of  hot 
paraffin,  or  glycerine  and  paraffin,  which  im- 
proves their  resistance  and  retards  discoloration. 
This  generally  being  done  in  a  steam-jacketed 
kettle,  or  tumbling  barrel,  and  then  placed  in  a 
centrifugal  to  remove  the  excess  of  water  and 
paraffin. 

In  some  factories,  and  when  the  customer  re- 
quests it,  the  name  is  branded  upon  the  stopper 
by  irons  heated  by  gas,  gasolene  or  in  a  coal 
fire,  automatic  gas  heated  machines  being  most 
general. 

In  the  foregoing  it  has  been  shown  how  the  stopper 
and  disk  are  made,  and  although  there  are  many 
different  manufacturers  of  corkwood  stoppers,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  modus  operand!  just  de- 
scribed is  followed  generally,  with  perhaps  a  varia- 
tion in  the  details.  The  waste  material,  "recortes" 
as  stated  is  collected  and  used  in  various  ways, 


Manufacture  67 


but  either  in  conjunction  with  other  materials  or 
alone  in  a  granulated  or  powdered  state. 

The  following  chapter  will  enumerate  the  three 
principal  uses  of  waste  corkwood,  and  as  these 
cover  the  fundamentals  of  the  other  uses  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  describe  them,  e.  g.,  linoleum, 
made  by  mixing  cork-flour  and  linseed  oil. 


WASTE  UTILIZATION 

IN  giving  the  processes  of  the  methods  used  in  the 
conversion  of  the  corkwood  waste  and  virgin 
corkwood,  which  is  classed  as  waste,  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  go  too  far  into  the  details,  as  most  of 
them  are  secret,  and  in  justice  to  those  who  use 
them  a  resume  is  all  that  will  be  incorporated 
in  this  monograph.  But  this  will  give  a  good 
idea  and  understanding  of  the  utilization,  which  is 
all  that  is  intended.  As  in  the  first  processes  of 
corkwood  manipulation  the  best  is  taken  first; 
so,  in  the  department  of  waste  utilization,  a  process 
is  now  used  whereby  the  best  scrap  is  made  into 
cork  disks  for  the  Crown  seal  as  described,  and  serves 
its  purpose  well. 

This  scrap  is  taken  and  granulated  in  an  iron 
rotary  cutter  mill,  to  a  degree  of  fineness  that  will 
pass  a  J"  mesh,  it  is  then  screened  and  mixed  with 
a  secret  binder  that  has  a  wonderful  holding 
quality;  it  is  then  dried  by  steam  and  pressed  into 
sheets  by  hydraulic  presses,  dried  again,  and  then 
stamped  out  in  the  usual  manner.  There  is  no 
waste  to  this  process  as  the  unused  portions  go  back 
to  the  grinders  again  and  through  the  usual  process. 

Granulated  cork  is  made  by  grinding  the  waste 
in  ordinary  metal  roller,  cage  or  bur  mills,  and  then 


Waste   Utilization  69 

screening  same  for  the  various  degrees  of  fineness; 
if  cork-flour  is  desired,  a  tube  mill  may  be  used. 

These  two  uses  are  generally  confined  to  the  best 
scrap,  but  there  still  remains  a  large  quantity 
which  has  a  great  value.  A  portion  of  this  is  made 
into  Spanish  black  by  carbonizing  same  in  a  closed 
iron  kettle,  or  retort,  and  then  grinding  same  in  a 
regulation  ball  mill,  until  the  desired  fineness  is 
obtained;  this  process  producing  a  very  fine  black. 

The  above  uses  in  no  degree  exhaust  the  amount 
of  scrap  corkwood  that  leaves  the  various  factories 
here  and  abroad,  nor  is  its  usefulness  expended, 
for  there  is  one  use  to  which  cork  scrap  is  being 
put  that  bids  fair  to  rival  the  stopper  industry 
in  importance,  and  that  is  in  the  form  of  cork- 
board  for  insultaing  purposes. 

The  processes  for  the  making  of  cork-board 
differ  in  many  ways,  widely  divergent  in  principle. 
The  corkwood  waste  and  virgin  cork  are  broken 
up  and  chipped  in  an  ordinary  iron  mill  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  all  processes;  in  one,  claimed  to  be 
the  best,  this  chipped  material  is  poured  into  iron 
molds  the  desired  shape  of  the  slab,  subjected  to 
heavy  pressure  and  run  into  an  oven  kept  at  about 
800  to  900  degrees  Fahrenheit.  This  oven,  being  a 
low  brick  type,  resembling  a  lear  and  heated  by  coal 
fires,  the  slab  molds  being  drawn  through  on  an 
endless  chain,  which  runs  at  a  speed  to  keep  the 
cork  in  just  long  enough,  for  the  resin  in  same  to 
exude  and  bind  the  little  particles  together;  the 
cork  is  also  charred  in  this  process,  thereby  con- 


70     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

verting  it  into  a  carbonized  cellulose  which  makes 
it  an  excellent  material  for  insulation.  Steam- 
heated  hydraulic  presses  are  also  used  for  making 
small  tile,  etc.,  being  the  same  principle  as  above, 
without  the  charring. 

The  other  process  involves  the  use  of  tar,  pitch 
or  asphaltum,  as  a  binder  for  the  cork  particles, 
and  in  one,  the  cork  is  mixed  with  a  clay  before 
being  mixed  with  the  asphaltum.  The  binder 
being  heated  in  steam  jacketed  kettles,  and  in 
one  it  is  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  four, 
while  in  the  other  it  is  forced  into  the  mass  under 
pressure  and  then  drawn  out  again  by  vacuum, 
both  mixtures  being  poured  into  molds  of  the 
desired  shape  of  the  slab  or  in  large  molds,  to  be 
cut  up  after,  and  subjected  to  heavy  pressure, 
the  sawing  being  done  by  an  ordinary  rip-saw, 
cutting  the  block  into  any  desired  thickness  of 
slab. 

The  above  described  processes  do  not  include 
all  of  the  various  manipulations  of  corkwood, 
for  there  are  innumerable  things  as  stated  under  the 
"Uses"  for  which  there  is  a  necessity  of  mechanical 
operation,  in  their  making;  but  the  general  pro- 
cesses are  as  stated  and  will  cover  most  all. 


EXTENT   OF   THE    MANUFACTURING 
INDUSTRY 

THE  cork  stopper  industry  had  its  permanent 
origin  in  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Gerona, 
town  of  Llacostera,  towards  the  latter  part  of  1750 
and  was  contemporaneous  with  the  inception  of  the 
glass  bottle,  although  corkwood  was  used  many 
years  before  as  a  stopper  for  amphora,  etc.,  as 
noted  in  a  previous  chapter. 

The  trade  flourished  there  until  wars  and  schisms 
rent  the  country  and  drove  the  industry  to  the 
mountains.  There  it  slumbered  and  struggled  for 
many  years  until  the  peace  was  restored  and  the 
people  assured  that  the  dangers  were  passed.  Its 
revival  was  not  very  sudden,  but  slowly  and  surely 
it  grew,  and  won  itself  a  place  in  the  trade  life  of 
Spain  and  finally  became  a  necessity,  so  much  so, 
that  it  began  to  attract  attention  and  other  coun- 
tries sought  to  secure  the  secret.  About  1828  the 
French  agents  at  Catalonia  found  enough  infor- 
mation to  warrant  them  returning  to  France  and 
there  set  up  for  themselves,  the  rivalry  between  the 
two  becoming  very  keen,  causing  much  excitement 
among  the  Spanish  manufacturers;  for  up  to  that 
time  they  monopolized  the  trade  and  had  a  nice 
time  of  it.  This  lasted  until  1849,  when  the  trade 


72     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

assumed  such  proportions  that  both  had  all  they 
could  attend  to  and  more.  This  insured  a  steady 
increase  of  the  trade,  and  before  long  it  assumed 
proportions  that  has  surpassed  the  dreams  of  its 
founders.  The  industry  spread  until  the  raw  ma- 
terial began  to  show  a  shortage  due  to  the  heavy 
demands  made  upon  it.  More  frequent  cuttings 
were  compulsory  to  supply  the  market,  and  in 
consequence  the  grade  became  poorer. 

The  realization  of  this  caused  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment to  step  in  and  protect  the  forests  as  a 
national  necessity,  and  the  result  was  the  passing 
of  laws  to  govern  the  cutting  of  corkwood  from  the 
trees.  But  the  trade  kept  on  growing  in  other 
countries  and  the  raw  stock  was  in  great  de- 
mand. 

The  result  of  the  heavy  exportation  of  corkwood 
again  caused  some  notable  alarm  among  the  manu- 
facturers and  trades-workers  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
but  principally  in  the  former,  as  most  of  the 
largest  factories  are  located  in  its  cities;  so  that  the 
principal  representatives  of  the  cork  industry 
convened  at  Madrid  in  December  of  1911,  at  which 
convention  resolutions  were  passed  to  urge  upon 
the  Government  the  necessity  of  imposing  an 
export  tax  or  duty  on  corkwood  ranging  from 
five  to  fifty  gold  pesetas  ($.Q965  to  $9.65)  per 
100  kilos  (220  pounds).  By  so  doing  it  was 
thought  to  remedy  the  shortage  in  the  home 
market. 

The  competition  between  the  foreign  and  Spanish 


Extent  of  the  Industry  73 

buyers  for  the  raw  corkwood  output  was  largely 
in  favor  of  the  foreigner  in  1911,  owing  to  the 
unprotective  export  duties,  and  the  result  has  been 
that  the  once  flourishing  national  industry  is  now 
very  badly  handicapped  for  want  of  working 
material. 

So  simultaneously  with  the  tariff  revision,  which 
went  into  effect  on  January  1,  1912,  an  endeavor 
was  made  to  put  in  force  the  increase  on  export 
corkwood,  but  owing  to  the  efforts  of  the  American 
cork  manufacturers,  who  have  a  great  influence 
over  the  Spanish  cork  industry,  the  proposed  in- 
crease did  not  meet  with  the  desired  success. 

In  the  attempt  to  restrict  the  importation  of 
raw  material  the  Spaniards  have  failed,  for  its 
usefulness  makes  the  demand  too  great  and  the 
foreigners  have  invaded  the  Iberian  Peninsula 
and  are  now  buying  up  even  the  raw  stock  on  the 
trees.  The  corkwood  markets  are  no  longer  con- 
fined to  two  or  three,  but  extend  round  the  world, 
the  principal  ones  being:  London,  Paris,  Rheims, 
Epernay,  Maguncia,  Dresden,  New  York,  Pitts- 
burgh, San  Francisco,  Buenos  Ayres,  Calcutta, 
Sydney,  Melbourne  and  Yeddo.  So  it  will  be 
seen  that  a  great  demand  is  being  made  upon  the 
forests,  which  must  be  cultivated  for  increased 
growth  and  production  or  an  early  investigation 
made  for  the  growing  of  the  trees  in  other  coun- 
tries. 

Of  course  the  industry  remains  very  strong 
throughout  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  particularly  in 


74     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 

the  Andalusia  District  of  Spain,  where  the  manu- 
facturing establishments  play  an  important  part 
in  converting  the  corkwood  into  useful  articles  of 
commerce.  The  Spanish  yield  of  raw  material 
has  remained  slightly  behind  Portugal,  but  this  does 
not  affect  the  former's  influence  in  the  trade. 
(See  Appendix.) 

It  is  inevitable  that  the  greatest  bulk  of  the 
trade  should  center  around  the  countries  in  which 
the  raw  material  is  grown,  for  the  greatest  advan- 
tage is  thus  gained  by  those,  so  fortunate  in  their 
location. 

But  the  spread  of  the  corkwood's  fame  has 
aroused  others  to  action,  and  it  appears  as  though 
the  monopoly  will  suffer  because  of  that  fame. 
The  demand  grows  daily,  and  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  American  trade  bids  fair  to  being  a  very  close 
rival  to  the  long-established  European  manufac- 
tures at  least. 

The  waste  is  rapidly  assuming  great  importance 
and  to  this  the  newer  entrant  in  the  business  is 
turning  all  his  energy.  The  doctrine  of  conser- 
vation and  utilization  has  been  heeded  by  the 
corkwood  industry  and  the  waste  is  no  longer 
such,  rather  standing  as  a  cork  product  second 
only  to  the  stopper,  when  the  fact  is  con- 
sidered that  the  grower  or  farmer  receives  about 
$58  per  ton  for  raw  corkwood  and  the  waste 
sells  from  $22  to  $32  per  ton;  its  value  is  ap- 
parent. 

A  notable  feature  of  the  shipments  from  Spain 


Extent  of  the  Industry  75 

is  the  waste  and  shavings,  which  doubled  from  1906 
to  1910,  viz.: 

1906  —  14,624  tons        1909  —  20,198  tons 

1907  —  17,557  "         1910  —  29,257  " 

1908  —  12,201  " 

The  uses  to  which  corkwood  may  be  put  are 
unlimited,  and  as  has  been  seen  the  uses  already 
known  are  sufficient,  in  themselves,  to  make  it  a 
very  important  commodity.  And  yet  when  we 
speak  of  uses  it  is  only  those  that  have  developed 
by  reason  of  the  corkwood's  own  peculiarity  that 
makes  it  the  subject  of  discussion,  and  not  the  great 
number  that  it  has  been  adapted  to,  for  perhaps 
its  utility  will  have  no  end,  and  in  my  estimation 
its  particular  qualities  are  but  little  appreciated. 
Of  course  its  application  as  a  stopper  is  ideal  for 
that  purpose,  but  it  appears  most  certain  that  this 
wonderful  growth  is  designed  to  be  of  greater  ser- 
vice to  man  than  the  mere  function  of  filling  the 
neck  of  a  bottle.  Chemically,  I  think  it  has  pos- 
sibilities; the  ancients  found  it  useful  in  Materia 
Medica,  and  there  may  still  be  a  use  in  this  line. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  the  most  wonderful  bark  of  its 
kind,  its  service  has  been  a  long  one,  and  its^bene- 
fits,  even  as  a  stopper,  have  been  many.  A  won- 
derful material  truly,  and  of  interest,  so  full  that 
it  seems  I  have  failed  to  do  it  justice  in  these  few 
words  presented  in  my  endeavor  to  describe  the 
Quercus  Suber  of  Linnaeus. 


APPENDIX 

FOR  those  who  may  be  interested  in  a  few  sta- 
tistics of  the  trade  is  appended  the  following 
figures  relating  to  the  Spanish  and  American  in- 
dustry: 

SPANISH  INDUSTRY,  1912 

There  were  892  factories  throughout  Spain  in 
1912,  in  107  towns  and  cities,  divided  as  follows: 

Seville  District         305  in  48  towns 
Barcelona  District  507  in  31 
Other  Districts          80  in  28      " 

These  factories  employ  approximately  40,000 
people  in  the  various  branches  of  the  industry  at 
an  average  daily  wage  of  67  cents. 

The  raw  material  yield  for  1912  is  reported  as: 
7800  short  tons,  valued  at  $57.90  per  ton  to  the 
grower,  or  $4,516,200. 

It  will  also  be  of  interest  to  show  a  few  com- 
parisons of  values,  for  various  years,  in  shipments 
to  foreign  parts,  viz.: 


Appendix 


77 


1909 


Description 

Pounds 

Value 

Cork  in  sheets  

11,009,939 

$405  366 

Cork  squares 

1,180489 

265  610 

Corks  

11,960,760 

4,870  948 

Cork  shavings                      .    . 

66,435,426 

363  563 

Other  manufactured  cork 

864  820 

40656 

Total 

91  451  434 

$5  946  143 

1910 


Description 

Pounds 

Value 

Cork  in  sheets  

16,798,492 

$618,489 

Cork  squares 

2  055,865 

462  472 

Corks 

14  924  052 

6  105  294 

Cork  shavings  

64,367,448 

526,642 

Other  manufactured  cork 

1  190  789 

57382 

Total                       ... 

99,336,646 

$7,770  279 

Corrected  figures  showing  totals 
as    .                  

109,336,646 

$7,942,677 

78     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 


1911 


Description 

Pounds 

Value 

Cork  in  sheets 

21  564  347 

$741  029 

Cork  squares  

2,076,881 

467  298 

Corks 

17  817  037 

7  288  787 

Cork  waste   

73,510,473 

591,468 

Cork,    manufactured    in    other 
forms 

1  828  030 

89  723 

Total    

116,796  768 

$9  178  305 

1912 


Description 

Pounds 

Value 

Corkwood    . 

17  928  000 

$528  810 

Cork  squares  

1,492,000 

356,229 

Corks  mfrd.   ") 

100  396  000 

(  7,864,299 

Cork  waste     j 
Other  mfrs  

1,166,000 

(    754,848 
49,783 

120,982,000 

$9,553,969 

Appendix 


79 


The  following  is  a  comparison  of  the  first  six 
months  of  1909,  1910  and  1911. 


1909 


Articles 

Tons 

Value 

Corkwood                               .... 

1  686 

$158  644 

Cork  squares  

262 

129,646 

Corks         .        .                    

2,624 

2  361  620 

Cork  waste  and  shavings 

9  589 

172  604 

Cork,  other  manufactures  

211 

25987 

1910 


Articles 

Tons 

Value 

Corkwood    

3,157 

$255  718 

Cork  squares  

485 

240057 

Corks 

3629 

3  265  760 

Cork  waste  and  shavings    

13,935 

205  822 

Cork,  other  manufactures  .    . 

251 

27  133 

80     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 


1911 


Articles 

Tons 

Value 

Corkwood    

5,129 

$415,432 

Cork  squares                      .        .    . 

442 

218,755 

Corks 

4057 

3  669  075 

Cork  waste  and  shavings    

18,143 

326,573 

Cork,  other  manufactures  

248 

32,657 

The  statistics  showing  the  shipments  to  various 
countries  are  for  1909: 


Cork 

Cork 

Countries 

Cork- 
wood 

Cork 
Sqs. 

Corks 

Waste 
and 

in 
Other 

Total 

Shav. 

Forms 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

United  States 

2,065 

— 

158 

7,594 

280 

10,097 

Great  Britain 

842 

4 

1,094 

7,539 

38 

9,518 

Germany  .... 

5 

18 

715 

4,555 

— 

5,293 

France  

1,256 

276 

2,044 

189 

56 

3,821 

Italy 

6 

79 

435 

11 

532 

Belgium  

164 

136 

215 

11 

526 

Russia 

463 

1 





464 

Aust-Hungary 

30 

346 

— 

— 

376 

Argentina   .  .  . 

164 

123 

57 

— 

— 

344 

Other  

40 

7 

426 

95 

9 

575 

Total 

5005 

537 

5,412 

20,198 

394 

31,546 

Appendix  81 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRY 

In  1899,  there  were  62  factories  in  the  United 
States  of  varying  sizes  and  located  in  the  following 
states:  New  York  (Brooklyn),  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Wis- 
consin and  Ohio.  Employing  2340  wage  earners. 
Importing  a  raw  stock  of  $2,404,000,  and  making 
products  valued  at  $4,392,000. 

In  1904,  the  factories  decreased  to  50  in  number, 
the  wage  earners  increased  to  2895,  the  imported 
raw  material  to  $2,459,197  and  the  products  to 
$4,490,952. 

In  1909,  the  factories  increasing  again  to  62  in 
number,  the  wage  earners  to  3142,  the  imported 
raw  material  to  $3,435,000  and  the  products  to 
$5,940,000:  corks  selling  from  3  cents  to  40  cents 
per  pound. 

This  of  course  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very 
extensive  business,  but  the  nature  of  the  commodity 
will  readily  convince  that  the  money  figures  are 
not  at  all  in  comparison  to  the  bulk  of  corkwood, 
for  it  would  really  seem  that  if  the  trade  should 
increase  to  an  amount  sufficient  to  vie  with  other 
prominent  ones,  the  ships  would  be  at  loss  how 
to  stow  the  other  freight.  The  imports  of  cork- 
wood into  this  country  and  the  exports,  for  com- 
parison, may  be  seen  in  the  following  tables: 


82     Cork:  Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses 


January 
1912  1913 

Corkwood,  Free: 
$450,082      $367,884 

Corks  mfrd.,  Dutiable: 
$181,252        130,580 


IMPORTS 
Seven  Months  ending  January 

1911  1912  1913 

$2,265,373      $1,849,550      $1,707,164 
1,380,109        1,137,504        1,180,816 


EXPORTS 


Seven  Months  ending 


Corkwood,  Free: 

Corks  mfrd.,  Dutiable:       209 


January 
1912    1913 

51,518   $1,195 
209  *  1,086 

January 
1912     1913 

$19,795    $22,393 
3,078     2,170 

And  the  periods  ending  December,  1913  will  be 
of  interest  also. 


December 
1912  1913 

Corkwood,  Free: 
$300,253      $468,937 

Corks  mfrd.,  Dutiable: 
$164,711         194,457 


IMPORTS 

Twelve  Months  ending  December 

1911  1912  1913 

$3,819,651       $3,182,131       $3,616,177 
2,070,672        2,440,399         2,370,527 


Appendix 


83 


EXPORTS 


December 


1912 


1913 


Corkwood,  Free:  $2,960 

Corks  mfrd.,  Dutiable:     —          $8,335 


Twelve  Months  ending 
December 


1912 

$34,404 
5,552 


1913 

$25,091 
5,392 


A  SELECTED  LIST  OF  BOOKS  ON 

CHEMISTRY      AND       CHEMICAL 
TECHNOLOGY 

Published  by 

D.    VAN     NOSTRAND    COMPANY 

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American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers.  Transactions. 
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Annual  Reports  dlrtfie  Progress  of  Chemistry.  Issued 
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ASCH,  W.,  and  ASCH,  D.  The  Silicates  in  Chemistry  and 
Commerce.  Including  the  exposition  of  a  hexite  and 
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eral application.  Translated,  with  critical  notes  and 
additions,  by  Alfred  B.  Searle.  Illus.  6^4  x  10.  cloth. 
476  pp.  net,  $6.00 

ASHLEY,  R.  H.  Chemical  Calculations.  Illustrated. 
STA  x7l/2-  cloth.  286  pp.  net,  $1.50 

BAILEY,  R.  0.  The  Brewer's  Analyst.  Illustrated.  8vo. 
cloth.  423  pp.  net,  $5.00 

BARKER,  A.  F.,  and  MIDGLEY,  E.  Analysis  of  Woven 
Fabrics.  85  illustrations.  5^x8^4.  cloth.  319  pp. 

net,  $3.00 

BEADLE,  C.  Chapters  on  Papermaking.  Illustrated. 
i2mo.  cloth.  5  volumes.  each,  net,  $2.00 

BEAUMONT,  R.  Color  in  Woven  Design.  A  treatise  on 
the  science  and  technology  of  textile  coloring  (woolen, 


2  D.    VAN   NOSTRAND    COMPANY'S 

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tions. 8vo.  cloth.  369  pp.  net,  $6.00 

BECHHOLD,  H.  Colloids  in  Biology  and  Medicine. 
Translated  by  J.  G.  Bullowa,  M.D.  In  Press. 

BEEKMAN,  J.  M.    Principles  of  Chemical  Calculations. 

In  Press. 

BENNETT,  HUGH  G.  The  Manufacture  of  Leather. 
no  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  438pp.  net,  $4.50 

BERNTHSEN,  A.  A  Text-book  of  Organic  Chemistry. 
English  translation.  Edited  and  revised  by  J.  J.  Sud- 
borough.  Illus.  I2mo.  cloth.  690  pp.  net,  $2.50 

BERSCH,  J.  Manufacture  of  Mineral  Lake  Pigments. 
Translated  by  A.  C.  Wright.  43  illustrations.  8vo. 
cloth.  476  pp.  net,  $5.00 

BEVERIDGE,  JAMES.  Papermaker's  Pocketbook.  Spe- 
cially compiled  for  paper  mill  operatives,  engineers, 
chemists  and  office  officials.  Second  and  Enlarged 
Edition.  Illus.  I2mo.  cloth.  211  pp.  net,  $4.00 

BIRCHMORE,  W.  H.  The  Interpretation  of  Gas  Analyses. 
Illustrated.  i2mo.  cloth.  75  pp.  net,  $1.25 

BLASDALE,  W.  C.  Principles  of  Quantitative  Analysis. 
An  introductory  course.  70  illus.  5^x7*^.  cloth. 
404  pp.  net,  $2.50 

BLtfCHER,  H.  Modern  Industrial  Chemistry.  Trans- 
lated by  J.  P.  Millington.  Illus.  8vo.  cloth.  795 
pp.  net,  $7.50 

BLYTH,  A.  W.  Foods:  Their  Composition  and  Analysis. 
A  manual  for  the  use  of  analytical  chemists,  with  an 
introductory  essay  on  the  History  of  Adulterations. 
Sixth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised,  enlarged  and  re- 
written. Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth.  634  pp.  $7.50 

Poisons :  Their  Effects  and  Detection.     A  manual  for 

the  use  of  analytical  chemists  and  experts,  with  an 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL   BOOKS 


introductory  essay  on  the  Growth  of  Modern  Toxicol- 
ogy. Fourth  Edition,  revised,  enlarged  and  rewritten. 
Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth.  772  pp.  $7.50 

B6CKMANN,  F.  Celluloid ;  Its  Raw  Material,  Manufac- 
ture, Properties  and  Uses.  49  illustrations.  I2mo.  cloth. 
120  pp.  net,  $2.50 

BOOTH,  WILLIAM  H.  Water  Softening  and  Treatment. 
91  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  310  pp.  net,  $2.50 

BOURCART,  E.  Insecticides,  Fungicides,  and  Weed 
Killer?.  Translated  by  D.  Grant.  8vo.  cloth.  500  pp. 

net,  $4.50 

BOURRY,  EMILE.  A  Treatise  on  Ceramic  Industries. 
A  complete  manual  for  pottery,  tile,  and  brick  manu- 
facturers. A  revised  translation  from  the  French  by 
Alfred  B.  Searle.  308  illustrations.  12  mo.  cloth. 
488  pp.  net,  $5.00 

BRISLEE,  F.  J.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Fuel. 
A  text-book  for  those  entering  the  engineering,  chem- 
ical and  technical  industries.  60  ill.  8vo.  cloth.  293 
pp.  (Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry.)  net,  $3.00 

BRUCE,  EDWIN  M.  Detection  of  the  Common  Food 
Adulterants.  Illus.  i2mo.  cloth.  90  pp.  net,  $1.25 

BUSKETT,  E.  W.  Fire  Assaying.  A  practical  treatise  on 
the  fire  assaying  of  gold,  silver  and  lead,  including 
descriptions  of  the  appliances  used.  Illustrated.  I2mo. 
cloth.  112  pp.  net,  $1.25 

BYERS,  HORACE  G,  and  KNIGHT,  HENRY  G.  Notes 
on  Qualitative  Analysis.  Second  Edition,  revised. 
8vo.  cloth.  192  pp.  net,  $1.50 

CAVEN,  R.  M.,  and  LANDER,  G.  D.  Systematic  Inor- 
ganic Chemistry  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Periodic 
Law.  A  text-book  for  advanced  students.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  cloth.  390  pp.  net,  $2.00 


4  D:    VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY'S 

CHRISTIE,  W.  W.  Boiler-waters,  Scale,  Corrosion,  Foam- 
ing. 77  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  242  pp.  net,  $3.00 

Water,  Its  Purification  and  Use  in  the  Industries. 

79  illus.,  3  folding  plates,  2  colored  inserts.  I2mo. 
cloth.  230  pp.  net,  $2.00 

CHURCH'S  Laboratory  Guide.  A  manual  of  practical 
chemistry  for  colleges  and  schools,  specially  arranged 
for  agricultural  students.  Ninth  Edition,  revised  and 
partly  rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch.  Illustrated.  8vo. 
cloth,  365  pp.  net,  $2.50 

CORNWALL,  H.  B.  Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis. 
Qualitative  and  quantitative.  With  a  complete  system 
of  determinative  mineralogy.  Sixth  Edition,  revised. 
70  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  310  pp.  net,  $2.50 

CROSS,  C.  F.,  BEVAN,  E.  J,  and  SINDALL,  R.  W. 
Wood  Pulp  and  Its  Uses.  With  the  collaboration  of 
W.  N.  Bacon.  30  illustrations.  I2ino.  cloth.  281 
pp.  (Van  Nostrand's  Westminster  Series.)  net,  $2.00 

d'ALBE,  E.  E.  F.  Contemporary  Chemistry.  A  survey 
of  the  present  state,  methods,  and  tendencies  of  chemi- 
cal science.  I2mo.  cloth.  172  pp.  net,  $1.25 

DANBY,  ARTHUR.  Natural  Rock  Asphalts  and  Bitu- 
mens. Their  Geology,  History,  Properties  and  Indus- 
trial Application.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  cloth.  254  pp. 

net,  $2.50 

DEERR,  N.  Cane  Sugar.  280  illustrations.  6^x9^4. 
cloth.  608  pp.  net,  $7.00 

DUMESNY,  P.,  and  NOYER,  J.  Wood  Products,  Dis- 
tillates and  Extracts.  Translated  by  D.  Grant.  103 
illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  320  pp.  net,  $4.50 

DUNSTAN,  A.  E.,  and  THOLE,  F.  B.  A  Text-book  of 
Practical  Chemistry  for  Technical  Institutes.  52  illus- 
trations. I2mo.  cloth.  345  pp.  net,  $1.40 

DYSON,  S.  S.,  and  CLARKSON,  S.  S.  Chemical  Works, 
Their  Design,  Erection,  and  Equipment.  80  illustra- 
tions, 9  folding  plates.  8vo.  cloth.  220  pp.  net,  $7.50 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL   BOOKS 


ELIOT,  C.  W.,  and  STOKER,  F.  H.  A  Compendious  Man- 
ual of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  Revised  with 
the  co-operation  of  the  authors,  by  William  R. 
Nichols.  Twenty-second  Edition,  newly  revised  by 
W.  B.  Lindsay.  111.  I2mo.  cloth.  205  pp.  net,  $1.25 

ELLIS,  C.  Hydrogenation  of  Oils,  Catalysis  and  Catalyzers, 
and  the  Generation  of  Hydrogen.  145  ill.  6x9.  cloth. 
350  pp.  net,  $4.00 

ENNIS,  WILLIAM  D.  Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils. 
An  industrial  manual.  88  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth. 
336  pp.  net,  $4.00 

ERMEN,  W.  F.  A.  The  Materials  Used  in  Sizing.  Their 
chemical  and  physical  properties,  and  simple  methods 
for  their  technical  analysis  and  valuation.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  cloth.  130  pp.  net,  $2.00 

FAY,  IRVING  W.  The  Chemistry  of  the  Coal-tar  Dyes. 
8vo.  cloth.  473  pp.  net,  $4.00 

FERNBACH,  R.  L.  Chemical  Aspects  of  Silk  Manu- 
facture. i2mo.  cloth.  84  pp.  net,  $1.00 

Glue  and  Gelatine.  A  practical  treatise  on  the 

methods  of  testing  and  use.  Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth. 
208  pp.  net,  $3.00 

FISCHER,  E.  Introduction  to  the  Preparation  of  Or- 
ganic Compounds.  Translated  from  the  new  (eighth) 
German  edition  by  R.  V.  Stanford.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  cloth.  194  pp.  net,  $1.25 

FOYE,  J.  C.  Chemical  Problems.  Fourth  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.,  i6mo.  cloth.  145  pp.  (Van  Nos- 
trand  Science  Series,  No.  69.)  $0.50 

FRANZEN,  H.  Exercises  in  Gas  Analysis.  Translated 
from  the  first  German  edition,  with  corrections  and 
additions  by  the  author,  by  Thomas  Callan.  30  dia- 
grams. 5x7*4.  cloth.  127  pp.  net,  $1.00 

FRITSCH,  J.  The  Manufacture  of  Chemical  Manures. 
Translated  from  the  French,  with  numerous  notes,  by 


6  D.   VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

Donald    Grant.     69   illus.,    108   tables.     Svo.     cloth. 
355  PP-  net,  $4.00 

GROSSMANN,  J.  Ammonia  and  Its  Compounds.  Illus- 
trated. I2mo.  cloth.  151  pp.  net,  $1.25 

HALE,  WILLIAM  J.  Calculations  in  General  Chemistry. 
With  definitions,  explanations  and  problems.  Second 
Edition,  revised.  I2mo.  cloth.  185  pp.  net,  $1.00 

HALL,  CLARE  H.  Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Ve- 
hicles. Svo.  cloth.  141  pp.  net,  $2.00 

HILDITCH,  T.  P.  A  Concise  History  of  Chemistry. 
16  diagrams.  I2mo.  cloth.  273  pp.  net,  $1.25 

HOPKINS,  N.  M.  Experimental  Electrochemistry :  Theo- 
retically and  Practically  Treated.  New  Edition. 

In  Press. 

HOULLEVIGUE,  L.  The  Evolution  of  the  Sciences. 
Svo.  cloth.  377  pp.  net,  $2.00 

HtiBNER,  JULIUS.  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  of  Vegetable 
Fibrous  Materials.  95  illus.  (many  in  two  colors). 
Svo.  cloth.  457  pp.  net,  $5.00 

HUDSON,  0.  F.  Iron  and  Steel.  An  introductory  text- 
book for  engineers  and  metallurgists.  With  a  section 
on  Corrosion  by  Guy  D.  Bengough.  47  illus.  Svo. 
cloth.  184  pp.  net,  $2.00 

HURST,  GEO.  H.  Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases. 
Their  origin,  preparation,  properties,  uses,  and  analy- 
sis. Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  by  Henry 
Leask.  74  illus.  Svo.  cloth.  405  p.  net,  $4.00 

HURST,  G.  H.,  and  SIMMONS,  W.  H.  Textile  Soaps' and 
Oils.  Second  Edition,  revised  and  partly  rewritten. 
ii  illustrations.  5^x8^.  204  pp.  net,  $3.00 

HYDE,  FREDERIC  S.  Solvents,  Oils,  Gums,  Waxes  and 
Allied  Substances.  5*4 x8^-  cloth-  182  pp. 

net,  $2.00 

INGLE,  HERBERT.  Manual  of  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
Illustrated.  Svo.  cloth.  388  pp.  iet;  $3.00 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL   BOOKS 


JOHNSTON,  J.  F.  W.  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry. Revised  and  icwritten  by  Charles  A.  Cameron 
and  C.  M.  Aikman.  Nineteenth  Edition.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  cloth.  502  pp.  $2.60 

JONES,  HARRY  C.  A  New  Era  in  Chemistry.  Some  of 
the  more  important  developments  in  general  chemis- 
try during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  Illustrated. 
i2ino.  cloth.  336  pp.  net,  $2.00 

XEMBLE,  W.  F.,  and  UNDERBILL,  C.  R.  The  Periodic 
Law  and  the  Hydrogen  Spectrum.  Illustrated.  8vo. 
paper.  16  pp.  net,  $0.50 

KERSHAW,  J.  B.  C.  .Fuel,  Water,  and  Gas  Analysis,  for 
Steam  Users.  50  ill.  8vo;  cloth.  178  pp.  net,  $2.50 
—  Electro-Thermal  Methods  of  Iron  and  Steel  Produc- 
tion. With  an  introduction  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Fleming, 
F.R.S.  50  tables,  92  illustrations.  53/2x8*4-  cloth. 
262  pp.  net,  $3.00 

KNOX,  JOSEPH.     Physico-chemical  Calculations.    i2mo. 

cloth.     196  pp.  net,  $1.00 

-  The  Fixation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen.     Illustrated. 

5x7*^.     cloth.     1 20  pp.     (Van  Nostrand's  Chemical 

Monographs.)  net,  $0.75 

KOLLER,  T.  Cosmetics.  A  handbook  of  the  manufac- 
ture, employment  and  testing  of  all  cosmetic  materials 
and  cosmetic  specialties.  Translated  from  the  German 
by  Charles  Salter.  8vo.  cloth.  262  pp.  net,  $2.50 
-Utilization  of  Waste  Products.  A  treatise  on  the 
rational  utilization,  recovery  and  treatment  of  waste 
products  of  all  kinds.  Second  Revised  and  Enlarged 
Edition.  22  illustrations.  5^4x8^.  cloth.  336pp. 

net,  $3.00 

KREMANN,  R.  The  Application  of  Physico-chemical 
Theory  to  Technical  Processes  and  Manufacturing 
Methods.  Authorized  translation  by  Harold  E.  Potts, 
M.Sc.  35  diagrams.  8vo.  cloth.  215  pp.  net,  $2.50 


8  D.    VAN   NOSTRAND    COMPANY'S 

KRETSCHMAR,  KARL.  Yarn  and  Warp  Sizing  in  All 
Its  Branches.  Translated  from  the  German  by  C. 
Salter.  122  illus.  8vo.  cloth.  192  pp.  net,  $4.00 

LAMBORN,  L.  I.  Modern  Soaps,  Candles  and  Glycerin. 
224  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  700  pp.  net,  $7.50 

Cotton  Seed  Products.  79  illus.  8vo.  cloth.  253  pp. 

net,  $3.00 

LASSAR-COHN.  Introduction  to  Modern  Scientific 
Chemistry.  In  the  form  of  popular  lectures  suited  for 
University  Extension  students  and  general  readers. 
Translated  from  the  Second  German  Edition  by  M.  M. 
Pattison  Muir.  Illus.  I2mo.  cloth.  356  pp.  $2.00 

LETTS,  E.  A.  Some  Fundamental  Problems  in  Chemis- 
try :  Old  and  New.  44  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  236 
pp.  net,  $2.00 

LUNGE,  GEORGE.  Technical  Methods  of  Chemical 
Analysis.  Translated  from  the  Second  German  Edition 
by  Charles  A.  Keane,  with  the  collaboration  of  eminent 
experts.  Complete  in  three  volumes.  Six  parts.  448 
illustrations.  6^x9^.  cloth.  3494pp.  net,  $48.00 
Vol.  I.  (in. two  parts).  201  illustrations.  6^2x9^2. 
cloth.  1024  pp.  net,  $15.00 

Vol.  II.  (in  two  parts).  149  illustrations.  6l/2  x9*/2. 
cloth.  1294  pp.  net,  $18.00 

Vol.  III.  (in  two  parts).  98  illustrations.  6^x9^. 
cloth.  1 174  pp.  net,  $18.00 

Technical  Chemists'  Handbook.  Tables  and  meth- 
ods of  analysis  for  manufacturers  of  inorganic  chemi- 
cal products.  Illus.  I2mo.  leather.  276  pp.  net,  $3.50 
Coal,  Tar  and  Ammonia.  Fourth  and  Enlarged  Edi- 


tion.    In  two  volumes,  not  sold  separately.    305  illus- 
trations.   8vo.    cloth.     1210  pp.  net,  $15.00 

The   Manufacture   of   Sulphuric   Acid   and   Alkali. 

A  theoretical  and  practical  tre^ise. 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL   BOOKS 


Vol.  I.  Sulpliuric  Acid.  Fourth  Edition,  enlarged. 
In  three  parts,  not  sold  separately.  543  illustrations. 
8vo.  cloth.  1665  pp.  net,  $18.00 

Vol.  II.  Sulphate  of  Soda,  Hydrochloric  Acid,  Leblanc 
Soda.  Third  Edition,  much  enlarged.  In  two  parts, 
not  sold  separately.  335  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth. 
1044  pp.  net,  $15.00 

Vol.  III.  Ammonia  Soda.  Various  Processes  of  Al- 
kali-making, and  the  Chlorine  Industry.  181  illus- 
trations. 8vo.  cloth.  784  pp.  net,  $10.00 
Vol.  IV.  Electrolytical  Methods.  In  Press. 
-Technical  Gas  Analysis.  143  illustrations.  6x9. 
cloth.  422  pp.  net,  $4.00 

McINTOSH,  JOHN  G.  The  Manufacture  of  Varnish  and 
Kindred  Industries.  Illus.  8vo.  cloth.  In  3  volumes. 
Vol.  I.  Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling;  Manu- 
facture of  Linoleum ;  Printing  and  Lithographic  Inks ; 
India  Rubber  Substitutes.  29  illus.  160  pp.  net,  $3.50 
Vol.  II.  Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making. 
66  illus.  216  pp.  net,  $4.00 

Vol.  III.  Spirit  Varnishes  and  Varnish  Materials. 
64  illus.  492  pp.  net,  $4.50 

MARTIN,  G.  Triumphs  and  Wonders  of  Modern  Chem- 
istry. A  popular  treatise  on  modern  chemistry  and 
its  marvels  written  in  non-technical  language.  76  il- 
lustrations. I2mo.  cloth.  358  pp.  net,  $2.00 

MELICK,  CHARLES  W.  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide.  52 
illustrations.  I2mo.  cloth.  135  pp.  net,  $1.25 

MERCK,  E.  Chemical  Reagents :  Their  Purity  and  Tests. 
Second  Edition,  revised.  6x9.  cloth.  210  pp.  $1.00 

MIERZINSKI,  S.  The  Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson. 
Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  29  illustrations. 
5  x  71/2.  140  pp.  net,  $2.50 


10          D.  VAN  NO  STRAND  COMPANY'S 

MITCHELL,  C.  A.  Mineral  and  Aerated  Waters,  in 
illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  244  pp.  net,  $3.00 

MITCHELL,  C.  A.,  and  PRIDEAUX,  R.  M.  Fibres  Used 
in  Textile  and  Allied  Industries.  66  illustrations. 
8vo.  cloth.  208  pp.  net,  $3.00 

MUNBY,  A.  E.  Introduction  to  the  Chemistry  and 
Physics  of  Building  Materials.  Illus.  8vo.  cloth.  365 
pp.  (Van  Nostrand's  Westminster  Series.)  net,  $2.00 

MURRAY,  J.  A.  Soils  and  Manures.  33  illustrations. 
8vo.  cloth.  367  pp.  (Van  Nostrand's  Westminster 
Series.)  net,  $2.00 

NAQUET,  A.  Legal  Chemistry.  A  guide  to  the  detec- 
tion of  poisons  as  applied  to  chemical  jurisprudence. 
Translated,  with  additions,  from  the  French,  by  J.  P. 
Battershall.  Second  Edition,  revised  with  additions. 
I2mo.  cloth.  190  pp.  $2.00 

NEAVE,  G.  B.,  and  HEILBRON,  I.  M.  The  Identifica- 
tion of  Organic  Compounds.  I2mo.  cloth,  in  pp. 

net,  $1.25 

NORTH,  H.  B.  Laboratory  Experiments  in  General 
Chemistry.  Second  Edition,  revised.  36  illustrations. 
5^4  x  7^4.  cloth.  212  pp.  net,  $1.00 

OLSEN,  J.  C.  A  Textbook  of  Quantitative  Chemical 
Analysis  by  Gravimetric  and  Gasoinetric  Methods. 
Including  74  laboratory  exercises  giving  the  analysis 
of  pure  salts,  alloys,  minerals  and  technical  products. 
Fourth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  74  illustrations. 
8vo.  cloth.,  576  pp.  net,  $4.00 

PAKES,  W.  C.  G.,  and  NANKIVELL,  A.  T.  The  Science 
o.f  Hygiene.  A  text-book  of  laboratory  practice.  80 
illustrations.  I2mo.  cloth.  175  pp.  net,  $1.75 

PARRY,  ERNEST  J.  The  Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils 
and  Artificial  Perfumes.  Second  Edition,  thoroughly 
revised  ond  greatly  enlarged.  Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth. 
554  pp.  net,  $5.00 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL    BOOKS  11 

Food  and  Drugs.     In  2  volumes.    Illus.    8vo.  cloth. 

Vo].  I.     The  Analysis  of  Food  and  Drugs  (Chemical 
and  Microscopical).    59  illus.    724  pp.  net,  $7.50 

Vol.  II.     The  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts,   1873- 
1907.     184  pp.  net,  $3.00 

PARTINGTON,  JAMES  R.  A  Text-book  of  Thermo- 
dynamics (with  special  reference  to  Chemistry).  91 
diagrams.  8vo.  cloth.  550  pp.  -let,  $4.00 

-Higher   Mathematics    for    Chemical    Students.      44 
diagrams.     I2mo.     cloth.     272  pp.  net,  $2.00 

PERKIN,  F.  M.  Practical  Methods  of  Inorganic  Chem- 
istry. Illustrated.  i2mo.  cloth.  152  pp.  net,  $1.00 

PERKIN,  F.  M.,  and  JAGGERS,  E.  M.  Textbook  of.  Ele- 
mentary Chemistry.  77  illustrations.  4^4  x  7.  cloth. 
342  pp.  net,  $1.00 

PLATTNER'S  Manual  of  Qualitative  and  Quantitative 
Analysis  with  the  Blowpipe.  Eighth  Edition,  revised. 
Translated  by  Henry  B.  Cornwall,  assisted  by  John 
H.  Caswell,  from  the  Sixth  German  Edition,  by  Fried- 
rich  Kolbeck.  87  ill.  8vo.  cloth.  463  pp.  net,  $4.00 

POILEYN,  F.  Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile 
Fabrics  and  Their  Application.  Translated  from  the 
Third  German  Edition  by  Chas.  Salter.  60  illustra- 
tions. 8vo.  cloth.  279  pp.  net,  $3.00 

POPE,  F.  G.  Modern  Research  in  Organic  Chemistry. 
261  diagrams.  i2mo.  cloth.  336  pp.  net,  $2.25 

PORRITT,  B.  D.  The  Chemistry  of  Rubber.  5x7^. 
cloth.  100  pp.  (Van  Nostrand's  Chemical  Mono- 
graphs.) net,  $0.75 

POTTS,  HAROLD  E.  Chemistry  of  the  Rubber  Industry. 
8vo.  cloth.  163  pp.  net,  $2.00 

PRESCOTT,  A.  B.  Organic  Analysis.  A  manual  of  the 
descriptive  and  analytical  chemistry  of  certain  carbon 
compounds  in  common  use.  Sixth  Edition.  Illus- 
trated. 8vo.  cloth.  533  pp.  $5.00 


12         D.    VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY'S 

PRESCOTT,  A.  B.,  and  JOHNSON,  0.  C.  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analysis.  Sixth  Edition,  revised  and  en- 
larged. Svo.  cloth.  439  pp.  net,  $3.50 

PRESCOTT,  A.  B.,  and  SULLIVAN,  E,  C.  First  Book  in 
Qualitative  Chemistry.  For  studies  of  water  solution 
and  mass  action.  Eleventh  Edition,  entirely  rewritten. 
I2mo.  cloth.  150  pp.  net,  $1.50 

PRIDEATJX,  E.  B.  R.  Problems  in  Physical  Chemistry 
with  Practical  Applications.  13  diagrams.  8vo.  cloth. 
323  pp.  net,  $2.00 

PROST,  E.  Manual  of  Chemical  Analysis.  As  applied 
to  the  assay  of  fuels,  ores,  metals,  alloys,  salts,  and 
other  mineral  products.  Translated  from  the  original 
by  J.  C.  Smith.  Illus.  Svo.  cloth.  300  pp.  net,  $4.50 

PYNCHON,  T.  R.  Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics. 
Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  269  illustrations. 
8vo.  cloth.  575  pp.  $3.00 

RICHARDS,  W.  A.,  and  NORTH,  H.  B.     A  Manual  of 
Cement  Testing.      For  the  use  of  engineers  and  chem- 
ists   in   colleges   and    in   the   field.      56   illustrations. 
I2mo.     cloth.      147  pp.  net,  $1.50 

RIDEAL,  S.  Glue  and  Glue  Testing.  Second  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  14  illustrations.  5^4x8^4. 
cloth.  194  pp.  net,  $4.00 

ROGERS,  ALLEN.  A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial 
Chemistry.  Illustrated.  Svo.  cloth.  170  pp.  net,  $1.50 

ROGERS,  ALLEN  (Editor).  Industrial  Chemistry.  A 
manual  for  the  student  and  manufacturer.  Second 
Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  enlarged.  Written 
by  a  staff  of  eminent  specialists.  ^04  illustrations. 
6^x9^4.  cloth.  io26pp.  net,  $5.00 

ROHLAND,  PAUL.  The  Colloidal  and  Crystalloidal  State 
of  Matter.  Translated  by  W.  J.  Britland  and  H.  E. 
Potts.  I2mo.  cloth.  54  pp.  net,  $1.25 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL    BOOKS  13 

ROTH,  W.  A.  Exercises  in  Physical  Chemistry.  Author- 
ized translation  by  A.  T.  Cameron.  49  illustrations. 
8vo.  cloth.  208  pp.  net,  $2.00 

SCHERER,  R.  Casein:  Its  Preparation  and  Technical 
Utilization.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Charles 
Salter.  Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Il- 
lustrated. 8vo.  cloth.  196  pp.  net,  $3.00 

SCHIDROWITZ,  P.  Rubber.  Its  Production  and  Indus- 
trial Uses.  Plates,  83  illus.  8vo.  cloth.  320  pp. 

net,  $5.00 

SCHWEIZER,  V.  Distillation  of  Resins,  Resinate  Lakes 
and  Pigments.  Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth,  i83pp.net,  $3.50 

SCOTT,  W.  W.  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  A  labo- 
ratory manual.  Second  Edition,  thoroughly  revised. 
Illus.  8vo.  cloth.  180  pp.  net,  $1.50 

SCUDDER,  HEYWARD.  Electrical  Conductivity  and 
lonization  Constants  of  Organic  Compounds.  6x9. 
cloth.  575  pp.  net,  $3.00 

SEARLE,  ALFRED  B.    Modern  Brickmaking.     260  illus- 
trations.    8vo.     cloth.     449  pp.  net,  $5.00 
-Cement,    Concrete    and   Bricks.      113    illustrations. 
5^2x8^4.    cloth.    415  pp.                                net,  $3.00 

SEIDELL,  A.  Solubilities  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Sub- 
stances. A  handbook  of  the  most  reliable  quantitative 
solubility  determinations.  Second  Printing,  corrected. 
8vo.  cloth.  367  pp.  net,  $3.00 

SENTER,  G.  Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry.  Second 
Edition,  revised.  Illus.  I2mo.  cloth.  401  pp.  $1.75 

A  Text-book  of  Inorganic  Chemistry.  90  illustra- 
tions. i2mo.  cloth.  595  pp.  net,  $1.75 

SEXTON,  A.  H.  Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials.  Second 
Ed.,  revised.  104  illus.  i2mo.  cloth.  374pp.  net,  $2.00 

Chemistry  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering.     Illus. 

I2mo.     cloth.     344  pp.  net,  $2.50 


i4         D.    VAN   NOSTRAND    COMPANY'S 

SIMMONS,  W.  H.,  and  MITCHELL,  C.  A.  Edible  Fats 
and  Oils.  Their  composition,  manufacture  and  analy- 
sis. Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth.  164  pp.  net,  $3.00 

SINDALL,  R.  W.  The  Manufacture  of  Paper.  58  illus. 
8vo.  cloth.  285  pp  .  (Van  Nostrand's  Westminster 
Series.)  net,  $2.00 

SINDALL,  R.  W.,  and  BACON,  W.  N.  The  Testing  of 
"Wood  Pulp.  A  practical  handbook  for  the  pulp  and 
paper  trades.  Illus.  8vo.  cloth.  150  pp.  net,  $2.50 

SMITH,  J.  C.  The  Manufacture  of  Paint.  A  manual  for 
paint  manufacturers,  merchants  and  painters.  Second 
Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  So  illustrations.  5//2  x 
8^4.  cloth.  286  pp.  net,  $3.50 

SMITH,  W.  The  Chemistry  of  Hat  Manufacturing. 
Revised  and  edited  by  Albert  Shonk.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  cloth.  132  pp.  net,  $3.00 

SOTJTHCOMBE,  J.  E.  Chemistry  of  the  Oil  Industries. 
Illus.  8vo.  cloth.  209  pp.  net,  $3.00 

SPEYERS,  C.  L.  Text-book  of  Physical  Chemistry.  20 
illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  230  pp.  net,  $2.25 

SPIEGEL,  L.  Chemical  Constitution  and  Physiological 
Action.  Translated  by  C.  Luedeking  and  A.  C. 
Boynton.  In  Press. 

STEVENS,  H.  P.  Paper  Mill  Chemist.  67  illustrations. 
82  tables.  i6rno.  cloth.  280  pp.  net,  $2.50 

SUDBOROUGH,  J.  J.,  and  JAMES,  J.  C.  Practical  Or- 
ganic Chemistry.  92  illustrations.  I2mo.  cloth. 
394  pp.  net,  $2.00 

TERR¥,  H.  L.  India  Rubber  and  Its  Manufacture. 
1 8  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  303  pp.  (Van  Nos- 
trand's  Westminster  Series.)  net,  $2.00 

TITHERLEY,  A.  W.  Laboratory  Course  of  Organic 
Chemistry,  Including  Qualitative  Organic  Analysis. 
Illustrated.  8vo.  cloth.  235  pp.  net,  $2.00 

TOCH,  M.  Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints. 
Nezv  Edition.  In  Preparation. 


LIST    OF    CHEMICAL    BOOKS 


TOCH,  M,  Materials  for  Permanent  Painting.  A  manual 
for  manufacturers,  art  dealers,  artists,  and  collectors. 
With  full-page  plates.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  cloth. 
208  pp.  net,  $2.00 

TUCKER,  J.  H.  A  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis.  Sixth 
Edition.  43  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  353  pp.  $3.50 

UNDERWOOD,  N.,  and  SULLIVAN,  T.  V.  Chemistry  and 
Technology  of  Printing  Inks.  9  illustrations.  6x9. 
cloth.  145  pp.  net,  $3.00 

VAN  NOSTRAND'S  Chemical  Annual.  Edited  by  John 
C.  Olsen  and  Alfred  Melhado.  A  handbook  of  useful 
data  for  analytical  manufacturing  and  investigating 
chemists  and  chemical  students.  Third  Issue,  enlarged. 
5  x  jy2.  leather.  683  pp.  net,  $2.50 

VINCENT,  C.  Ammonia  and  Its  Compounds.  Their 
manufacture  and  uses.  Translated  from  the  French 
by  M.  J.  Salter.  32  ill.  8vo.  cloth.  113  pp.  net,  $2.00 

VON  GEORGIEVICS,  G.  Chemical  Technology  of  Textile 
Fibres.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Charles 
Salter.  47  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth.  320  pp.  net,  $4.50 
-  Chemistry  of  Dyestuffs.  Translated  from  the  Sec- 
ond German  Edition  by  Charles  Salter.  8vo.  cloth. 
412  pp.  net,  $4.50 

VOSMAER,  A.  Ozone,  Its  Manufacture  and  Uses. 

In  Press. 

WADMORE,  J.  M.  Elementary  Chemical  Theory.  Illus. 
i2mo.  cloth.  286pp.  net,  $1.50 

WALKER,  JAMES.  Organic  Chemistry  for  Students  of 
Medicine.  Illus.  6x9.  cloth.  328  pp.  net,  $2.50 

WALSH,  J.  J.  The  Chemistry  of  Mining  and  Mine 
Ventilation.  In  Press. 

WARNES,  A.  R.  Coal  Tar  Distillation  and  Working  Up 
of  Tar  Products.  67  illustrations.  5^x8^.  cloth. 
197  pp.  net,  $2.50 


16  LIST  OF  CHEMICAL  BOOKS 

WHITE,  C.  H.  Methods  in  Metallurgical  Analysis.  106 
illustrations.  5x7^.  cloth.  365pp.  net,  $2.50 

WILSON,  F.  J.,  and  HEILBRON,  I.  M.  Chemical  Theory 
and  Calculations.  An  elementary  text-book.  Illus.,  3 
folding  plates.  I2mo.  cloth.  145  pp.  net,  $1.00 

WOOD,  J.  K.  The  Chemistry  of  Dyeing.  5x7^.  cloth. 
87  pp.  (  Van  Nostrand's  Chemical  Monographs.) 

net,  $0.75 

WOEDEN,  E.  C.  The  Nitrocellulose  Industry.  A  com- 
pendium of  the  history,  chemistry,  manufacture,  com- 
mercial application,  and  analysis  of  nitrates,  acetates, 
and  xanthates  of  cellulose  as  applied  to  the  peaceful 
arts.  With  a  chapter  on  gun  cotton,  smokeless  pow- 
der and  explosive  cellulose  nitrates.  Illustrated. 
8vo.  cloth.  Two  volumes.  1239  pp.  net,  $10.00 
-Technology  of  Cellulose  Esters.  A  theoretical  and 
practical  treatise  on  the  origin,  history,  chemistry,  man- 
ufacture, technical  application  and  analysis  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  acylation  and  alkylation  of  normal  and  modi- 
fied cellulose,  including  nitrocellulose,  celluloid,  pyr- 
oxylin, collodion,  celloidin,  gun-cotton,  acetycelluloser 
and  viscose,  as  applied  to  technology,  pharmacy, 
microscopy,  medicine,  photography  and  the  warlike 
and  peaceful  arts.  In  ten  volumes.  600  ill.,  12  plates, 
containing  upwards  of  110,000  patent  and  literature 
references  to  the  work  of  12,000  different  investigators. 
An  Exhaustive  Treatise.  4000  pp. 
Vol.  VIII.  Carbohydrate  Carboxylates  (Cellulose  Ace- 
tate). Illustrated.  6^x9^.  515  pp.  net,  $5.00 
(Other  volumes  to  follow  at  short  intervals.) 

WREN,  HENRY.  Organometallic  Compounds  of  Zinc  and 
Magnesium.  5x71^.  cloth.  108  pp.  (Van  Nos- 
trand's Chemical  Monographs.)  net,  $0.75 

2»/SM— 4— 15 


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AUG10 


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U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


333815 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


